BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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The majority of colleges were in urban areas. In 1923, Peking had 37 colleges, and Jiangsu had 15. Eleven provinces had either only one or no colleges. Peking had the largest number of female college students, with 653. Nationwide, there were 847 female college students of a total of 34,880 college students in China. Women comprised 7.13 percent of all students in Secondary Vocational Schools, with 1,452 of 20,360 total students. Again, Peking had the largest number of these students, 617. The number of females in Elementary Vocational Schools was greatest in Jiangsu, perhaps because of the large missionary influence and silk industry there. There were none in Peking. Girl students of this kind comprised 1,757 of a total of 20,467 vocational students nationwide. 172 By this time, China had eight union medical schools for men, at Mukden, Peking, Jinan, Hankou, Chengdu, Nanjing/Hangzhou, Fuzhou, and Guangzhou. In addition, there were three medical schools for women: Hackett in Guangzhou, Suzhou under Margaret Polk, and the Union Medical College for Women in Beijing. 173 Out of the 815 students enrolled in medical schools in 1923, 17 were girls. They were all in urban areas, leaving the vast majority of China’s population untouched by Western medical influence. Furthermore, there were no enforced national standardized curricula or registration, thus no uniformity among admissions requirements or training. In addition to these legitimate schools, there was still unofficial training of medical personnel in various hospitals throughout China. 174 None of these schools had many students. Some women students studied in the United States, Europe, or Japan, but these were extremely rare. In 1919, there were 63 Chinese women studying in America in all fields, and 65 in 1920. 172 National Association for the Advancement of Education, "Statistical Summaries of Chinese Education," 4-5, 10- 49. 173 Balme, China and Modern Medicine: A Study in Medical Missionary Development. 174 Yip, Health and National Reconstruction, 17. 69
Boxer indemnity money that the United States remitted to China between 1908 and 1917 was used to found Qinghua University and to send Chinese men and women to study in the United States. Qinghua was established in 1911 as a junior college to prepare students for study in the United States on Boxer scholarships. In the first 18 years of the program 1,300 men and women were sent abroad. 175 The program was initially designed to send10 female students for a five-year course of study in America every other year, but those numbers were not met. 176 No students were sent in 1920 or 1922, and as of 1923, Qinghua dedicated only three percent of its total scholarship money to sending women students abroad and proposed to stop sending women altogether. Several educational and women’s organizations challenged this proposal, so Qinghua planned to send five female students in 1923. 177 Formal education for women, even by the 1920s, was dismal, and women’s medical education was almost nonexistent, but change was rapid and forthcoming. The idea that women could and should be educated was spreading. This major shift in gender identity, that women were worthy of an education and that they could help to build a new China, gave them more opportunities and opened the medical field to them. In addition, modern medicine and public health gradually became more accepted, especially in urban areas, in part because of their effectiveness in halting the North Manchurian plague epidemic. The foundation laid by the medical missionaries from Great Britain and the United States, based on the support of local gentry and officials, allowed the Nationalist government to rapidly adopt public health and medical education measures. 175 Bowers, "Imperialism and Medical Education in China," 455-56. 176 Ibid. 177 Tang, "Woman's Education in China," 27-30. 70
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
Page 27 and 28: ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
Page 29 and 30: IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
Page 31 and 32: modern medicine as soon as it was a
Page 33 and 34: In addition to the culturally imper
Page 35 and 36: (1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
Page 37 and 38: irths were attended by untrained mi
Page 39 and 40: Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
Page 41 and 42: more important in making government
Page 43 and 44: CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
Page 45 and 46: Well into the twentieth century, mo
Page 47 and 48: pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
Page 49 and 50: This ideal of aseptic births to dec
Page 51 and 52: medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
Page 53 and 54: y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
Page 55 and 56: named the Turner Training School fo
Page 57 and 58: Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
Page 59 and 60: Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
Page 61 and 62: Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
Page 63 and 64: clinic at the temple, I presume for
Page 65 and 66: It later became the Beiyang Naval M
Page 67 and 68: and college continued jointly by th
Page 69 and 70: sent her sons to the mission school
Page 71 and 72: nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
Page 73 and 74: College for Women in Peking (establ
Page 75 and 76: medical colleges with a national st
Page 77: critical of the quality of the Chin
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
Page 83 and 84: authority that had previously been
Page 85 and 86: After the start of the Nationalist
Page 87 and 88: schools. The 28 medical schools in
Page 89 and 90: crisis in maternal and child health
Page 91 and 92: the only course for China to take i
Page 93 and 94: The maternity ward practice grouped
Page 95 and 96: was established for nurses to recei
Page 97 and 98: Department of Education in 1931. Du
Page 99 and 100: Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
Page 101 and 102: were established for each 50,000 pe
Page 103 and 104: Health Administration offered a gra
Page 105 and 106: Chen did institute successful progr
Page 107 and 108: February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
Page 109 and 110: as “Maternity and Child Health He
Page 111 and 112: 卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
Page 113 and 114: 1930s, the following schools were e
Page 115 and 116: midwife or physician in attendance,
Page 117 and 118: in a “foreign style” and funded
Page 119 and 120: and controlled by the state. As soo
Page 121 and 122: standards or else shut them down. A
Page 123 and 124: 6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
Page 127 and 128: physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
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Hopkins served as the model for med
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third wife and came from a rich fam
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However, Yang was drawn to the plig
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During the next section (January to
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addition, Beiping would be the muni
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$67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
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course schools” throughout China.
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Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
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Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
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The first class opened in July 1931
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“poor theoretical instruction.”
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sessions given by an obstetrician o
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Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
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school wished to train them in fill
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in the city, undertaking periodical
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efresher courses each for local mod
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conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
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educational visits to instruct moth
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section. They accompanied the atten
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of discharge from the hospital, one
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Midwifery School and a key player i
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November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
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Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
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deaths. At the hospital that year,
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New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
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However, the largest number of wome
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Marion Yang and the First National
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egistration of births. In this way,
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In his book on professionals in Rep
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three-quarters of the profession, b
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MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
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applied their organizational struct
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participate in any scheme which pre
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THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
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health policy. In fact, in the 1930
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future, since one-third of present
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Local midwifery organizations could
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supported career woman. Several con
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Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
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Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
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Field Health Station and the FNMS,
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pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
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social standing in their community.
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leaders penned treatises on the imp
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traditional Chinese and/or scientif
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the rate was probably higher in urb
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Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
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therefore they had less life- and s
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to oneself could be passed on to on
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give the fetus favorable emotional
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weak nations of the East, but we ca
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Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
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Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
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major impact on health policy and a
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and hat. She has the images and doc
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Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
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we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
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A similar organization in Changsha,
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Articles about these clubs in Weste
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we can see a struggle not just over
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Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
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Along with images of people, these
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Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
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MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
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- Simpson’s straight perforator -
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wonders how a jieshengpo could have
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elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
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CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
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often moved around for jobs or took
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My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
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1941, she helped to establish Sichu
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centers that included maternal and
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those trained were midwives or “y
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all women go to hospitals to have t
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examinations, supine position, and
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APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
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d. Make investigation into existing
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
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"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
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Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
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Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
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Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
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Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
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Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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