BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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private, and would have three or more of the faculties of arts, science, law, education, agriculture, commerce, engineering or medicine. In addition, independent colleges (duli xuexiao 独立学校) could exist but were limited to no more than two faculties. The course of medical study would last five years, while all others were for four. 196 Between 1931 and 1935, the Chinese National Commission on Medical Education standardized curricula and textbooks for national medical colleges and provincial medical schools. There were five national medical colleges in China by 1934: Shanghai (established in 1908), Beijing (1912), Guangzhou (1926), Shanghai (1927), Nanjing (1935), plus two military medical schools in Nanjing (1902) and Kunming (1931). 197 In addition, there were six provincial-level medical schools, all with Chinese-language instruction: Hangzhou (established in 1912), Baoding (1916), Nanchang (1921), Kaifeng (1928), Jinan (1932), Kunming (1933). Furthermore, at least 17 private medical colleges and schools existed, all in major urban areas: five in Shanghai (1906, 1909, 1918, 1924, 1926), two in Guangzhou (1899, 1909), two in Shenyang (1912, 1921), and one each in Beijing (1906), Jinan (1909), HK (1912), Nantong (1912), Chengdu (1914), Changsha (1914), Taiyuan (1919), and Harbin (1926). 198 Most of these were run by missionaries. By 1935, there were reportedly 5,390 Western-trained physicians in China, 87 percent of whom were Chinese. Seventy-one percent of these Chinese doctors were educated in China, and the vast majority practiced in urban areas, with 22 percent of them in Shanghai alone. 199 By 1934, there were over 550 Chinese female medical school graduates, including 463 from Chinese medical colleges, 70 from Japanese women’s medical schools, and 26 from American medical 196 Ibid. 197 Lucas, Chinese Medical Modernization: Comparative Policy Continuities, 1930s - 1980s, 69. 198 Wong and Wu, History of Chinese Medicine: Being a Chronicle of Medical Happenings in China from Ancient Times to the Present Period, 795-98. 199 Ibid., 799. 77
schools. The 28 medical schools in China in 1934 included only two exclusively for women and three for men. Out of 3,655 students, 619, or 16.9 percent, were women. 200 In addition to improving medical education, there was a concentrated effort to develop maternal and child health programs. In 1929, the Ministry of Health’s first Five-Year Program aimed to provide preventive and clinical maternal and child health care in cities and rural areas. This plan focused on building a health administration unit and training facilities. It included the creation of the Central Field Health Station in Nanjing, a central hygiene institute with research labs and a drug production unit. It also established the Chinese National Health Administration under the Ministry of Interior in 1931, a body responsible for health legislation enforcement and administrative supervision that reported to the Executive Yuan. The Central Field Health Station was responsible for technical and educational aspects of the National Health Administration. 201 The Five-Year Program also created programs to train old-style and modern midwives and public health nurses, as well as provide a nationwide maternal and child health care network. Like other aspects of public health in China in the 1920s and 1930s, these training programs were heavily influenced by the LON-HO. At the 1931 LON-HO European Conference on Rural Hygiene, “the continental system of two grades of midwives was favored, with the ‘second- class’ midwife’s shorter period of training oriented toward rural health work.” 202 This meant that high school graduates could enroll in lengthy midwife training programs, while at the other end old-style midwives would get a cursory two-week to two-month instruction on methods of aseptic childbirth. This was the basic model that the First National Midwifery School followed. 200 Tao, "Medical Education of Chinese Women," 75. 201 Lucas, Chinese Medical Modernization: Comparative Policy Continuities, 1930s - 1980s, 60-61. 202 Ibid., 65. 78
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
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ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
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IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
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modern medicine as soon as it was a
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In addition to the culturally imper
Page 35 and 36: (1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
Page 37 and 38: irths were attended by untrained mi
Page 39 and 40: Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
Page 41 and 42: more important in making government
Page 43 and 44: CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
Page 45 and 46: Well into the twentieth century, mo
Page 47 and 48: pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
Page 49 and 50: This ideal of aseptic births to dec
Page 51 and 52: medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
Page 53 and 54: y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
Page 55 and 56: named the Turner Training School fo
Page 57 and 58: Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
Page 59 and 60: Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
Page 61 and 62: Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
Page 63 and 64: clinic at the temple, I presume for
Page 65 and 66: It later became the Beiyang Naval M
Page 67 and 68: and college continued jointly by th
Page 69 and 70: sent her sons to the mission school
Page 71 and 72: nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
Page 73 and 74: College for Women in Peking (establ
Page 75 and 76: medical colleges with a national st
Page 77 and 78: critical of the quality of the Chin
Page 79 and 80: Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
Page 83 and 84: authority that had previously been
Page 85: After the start of the Nationalist
Page 89 and 90: crisis in maternal and child health
Page 91 and 92: the only course for China to take i
Page 93 and 94: The maternity ward practice grouped
Page 95 and 96: was established for nurses to recei
Page 97 and 98: Department of Education in 1931. Du
Page 99 and 100: Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
Page 101 and 102: were established for each 50,000 pe
Page 103 and 104: Health Administration offered a gra
Page 105 and 106: Chen did institute successful progr
Page 107 and 108: February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
Page 109 and 110: as “Maternity and Child Health He
Page 111 and 112: 卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
Page 113 and 114: 1930s, the following schools were e
Page 115 and 116: midwife or physician in attendance,
Page 117 and 118: in a “foreign style” and funded
Page 119 and 120: and controlled by the state. As soo
Page 121 and 122: standards or else shut them down. A
Page 123 and 124: 6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
Page 127 and 128: physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
Page 129 and 130: Hopkins served as the model for med
Page 131 and 132: third wife and came from a rich fam
Page 133 and 134: However, Yang was drawn to the plig
Page 135 and 136: During the next section (January to
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addition, Beiping would be the muni
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$67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
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course schools” throughout China.
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Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
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Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
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The first class opened in July 1931
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“poor theoretical instruction.”
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sessions given by an obstetrician o
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Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
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school wished to train them in fill
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in the city, undertaking periodical
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efresher courses each for local mod
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conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
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educational visits to instruct moth
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section. They accompanied the atten
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of discharge from the hospital, one
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Midwifery School and a key player i
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November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
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Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
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deaths. At the hospital that year,
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New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
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However, the largest number of wome
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Marion Yang and the First National
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egistration of births. In this way,
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In his book on professionals in Rep
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three-quarters of the profession, b
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MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
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applied their organizational struct
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participate in any scheme which pre
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THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
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health policy. In fact, in the 1930
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future, since one-third of present
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Local midwifery organizations could
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supported career woman. Several con
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Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
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Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
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Field Health Station and the FNMS,
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pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
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social standing in their community.
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leaders penned treatises on the imp
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traditional Chinese and/or scientif
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the rate was probably higher in urb
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Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
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therefore they had less life- and s
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to oneself could be passed on to on
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give the fetus favorable emotional
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weak nations of the East, but we ca
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Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
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Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
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major impact on health policy and a
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and hat. She has the images and doc
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Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
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we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
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A similar organization in Changsha,
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Articles about these clubs in Weste
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we can see a struggle not just over
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Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
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Along with images of people, these
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Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
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MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
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- Simpson’s straight perforator -
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wonders how a jieshengpo could have
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elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
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CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
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often moved around for jobs or took
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My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
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1941, she helped to establish Sichu
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centers that included maternal and
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those trained were midwives or “y
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all women go to hospitals to have t
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examinations, supine position, and
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APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
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d. Make investigation into existing
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
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"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
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Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
Page 289 and 290:
Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
Page 291 and 292:
Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
Page 293 and 294:
Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
Page 295 and 296:
Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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