BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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Modern medicine eases the fears of childbirth by claiming the ability to control it. By eliminating or reducing the risk of human error and carelessness, and by quantifying events (timing contractions, signifying the three stages of labor, measuring cervical dilation), modern medicine purports to make birth safe and controllable. For women with a contracted pelvis, an abnormal fetal presentation, or gestational diabetes, prenatal care and a birth assisted by a modern physician or midwife were invaluable and could save the lives of both mother and infant. Caesarian section, after the advent of aseptic surgical methods, was especially advantageous to women who otherwise would not have been able to deliver a live child or survive the birth themselves. Most of the practices that the modern medical profession promoted in China dealt with asepsis, not invasive medical or surgical procedures, and it is these aseptic practices that are the primary focus of this work. Some of the new medical practices were medically necessary, while others were merely “cultural add-ons.” A case in point is the way that modern medicine in the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries treats pregnancy as a disease to be monitored, managed, and treated by a skilled physician in a hospital using fetal heart monitors and intravenous drugs. The extensive medicalization of birth and parturition, for example, routine episiotomies, pubic shaving, a prone labor and delivery position, and constant monitoring of mother and infant, are in most cases unnecessary to ensure a safe birth, but they are important rituals that engender security and safety on the part of the parturient woman and her family. The patient and the modern midwife collaborate on these procedures based on a degree of trust and faith: the patient trusts the midwife to produce a safe and healthy birth, and the midwife puts her faith in her skills in modern medicine to safely deliver the child. 23
In addition to the culturally imperialistic view of medicine, several scholars have considered philanthropy to be a form of cultural imperialism. 37 Many of the hospitals, midwifery training programs, and public health campaigns in China were promoted and funded by foreign philanthropic organizations, whether they were missionary endeavors, national organizations like the League of Nations Health Organization (established in 1908), or private donors like the Rockefeller Foundation. The latter organization poured millions of dollars into improving China’s health care system. 38 In fact, the Rockefeller Foundation worked closely with the League of Nations and even formed a special committee, the China Medical Board, to distribute funds to China. Richard Brown claims that the Rockefeller endeavor was based solely on creating a healthy society that would further the United States’ capitalist needs. A director of a Rockefeller-controlled investment corporation claimed that “where mass diseases are brought under control, productivity tends to increase – through increasing the percentage of adult workers as a proportion of the total population, [and] through augmenting their strength and ambition to work.” 39 This theory of medicine argues that medical philanthropies were developed to support and legitimize capitalism, while focusing attention away from problems that such capitalist industrial development may cause, for example black lung disease. Furthermore, “the Rockefeller philanthropy officers could publicly acknowledge their use of medicine to integrate dissenting people into industrialist and capitalist society” by demonstrating that they had the common people’s best interests at heart. 40 In fact, according to Paul Weindling, “the broad 37 Robert F. Arnove, Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1980), E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, Jiang Xiaoyang, "Cross-Cultural Philanthropy as a Gift Relationship: The Rockefeller Foundation Donors and Chinese Recipients, 1913-1921" (PhD dissertation, Bowling Green State University, 1994). 38 The Rockefeller Foundation’s China Medical Board donated US$45 million to health care efforts in China. See page 119. 39 Stacy May, quoted in Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, 116-17. 40 Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, 124. 24
Page 1 and 2: BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
Page 3 and 4: Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
Page 5 and 6: family and community. This research
Page 7 and 8: LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
Page 9 and 10: PREFACE This work would have not be
Page 11 and 12: healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
Page 13 and 14: New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
Page 15 and 16: traditional Chinese medical profess
Page 17 and 18: Republican and Nationalist eras (19
Page 19 and 20: the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
Page 21 and 22: unscientific jumble of superstition
Page 23 and 24: maternal and child health care cent
Page 25 and 26: uilding efforts after the fall of t
Page 27 and 28: ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
Page 29 and 30: IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
Page 31: modern medicine as soon as it was a
Page 35 and 36: (1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
Page 37 and 38: irths were attended by untrained mi
Page 39 and 40: Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
Page 41 and 42: more important in making government
Page 43 and 44: CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
Page 45 and 46: Well into the twentieth century, mo
Page 47 and 48: pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
Page 49 and 50: This ideal of aseptic births to dec
Page 51 and 52: medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
Page 53 and 54: y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
Page 55 and 56: named the Turner Training School fo
Page 57 and 58: Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
Page 59 and 60: Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
Page 61 and 62: Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
Page 63 and 64: clinic at the temple, I presume for
Page 65 and 66: It later became the Beiyang Naval M
Page 67 and 68: and college continued jointly by th
Page 69 and 70: sent her sons to the mission school
Page 71 and 72: nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
Page 73 and 74: College for Women in Peking (establ
Page 75 and 76: medical colleges with a national st
Page 77 and 78: critical of the quality of the Chin
Page 79 and 80: Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
Page 83 and 84:
authority that had previously been
Page 85 and 86:
After the start of the Nationalist
Page 87 and 88:
schools. The 28 medical schools in
Page 89 and 90:
crisis in maternal and child health
Page 91 and 92:
the only course for China to take i
Page 93 and 94:
The maternity ward practice grouped
Page 95 and 96:
was established for nurses to recei
Page 97 and 98:
Department of Education in 1931. Du
Page 99 and 100:
Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
Page 101 and 102:
were established for each 50,000 pe
Page 103 and 104:
Health Administration offered a gra
Page 105 and 106:
Chen did institute successful progr
Page 107 and 108:
February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
Page 109 and 110:
as “Maternity and Child Health He
Page 111 and 112:
卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
Page 113 and 114:
1930s, the following schools were e
Page 115 and 116:
midwife or physician in attendance,
Page 117 and 118:
in a “foreign style” and funded
Page 119 and 120:
and controlled by the state. As soo
Page 121 and 122:
standards or else shut them down. A
Page 123 and 124:
6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
Page 125 and 126:
CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
Page 127 and 128:
physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
Page 129 and 130:
Hopkins served as the model for med
Page 131 and 132:
third wife and came from a rich fam
Page 133 and 134:
However, Yang was drawn to the plig
Page 135 and 136:
During the next section (January to
Page 137 and 138:
addition, Beiping would be the muni
Page 139 and 140:
$67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
Page 141 and 142:
course schools” throughout China.
Page 143 and 144:
Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
Page 145 and 146:
Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
Page 147 and 148:
The first class opened in July 1931
Page 149 and 150:
“poor theoretical instruction.”
Page 151 and 152:
sessions given by an obstetrician o
Page 153 and 154:
Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
Page 155 and 156:
school wished to train them in fill
Page 157 and 158:
in the city, undertaking periodical
Page 159 and 160:
efresher courses each for local mod
Page 161 and 162:
conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
Page 163 and 164:
educational visits to instruct moth
Page 165 and 166:
section. They accompanied the atten
Page 167 and 168:
of discharge from the hospital, one
Page 169 and 170:
Midwifery School and a key player i
Page 171 and 172:
November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
Page 173 and 174:
Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
Page 175 and 176:
deaths. At the hospital that year,
Page 177 and 178:
New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
Page 179 and 180:
However, the largest number of wome
Page 181 and 182:
Marion Yang and the First National
Page 183 and 184:
egistration of births. In this way,
Page 185 and 186:
In his book on professionals in Rep
Page 187 and 188:
three-quarters of the profession, b
Page 189 and 190:
MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
Page 191 and 192:
applied their organizational struct
Page 193 and 194:
participate in any scheme which pre
Page 195 and 196:
THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
Page 197 and 198:
health policy. In fact, in the 1930
Page 199 and 200:
future, since one-third of present
Page 201 and 202:
Local midwifery organizations could
Page 203 and 204:
supported career woman. Several con
Page 205 and 206:
Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
Page 207 and 208:
Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
Page 209 and 210:
Field Health Station and the FNMS,
Page 211 and 212:
pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
Page 213 and 214:
social standing in their community.
Page 215 and 216:
leaders penned treatises on the imp
Page 217 and 218:
traditional Chinese and/or scientif
Page 219 and 220:
the rate was probably higher in urb
Page 221 and 222:
Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
Page 223 and 224:
therefore they had less life- and s
Page 225 and 226:
to oneself could be passed on to on
Page 227 and 228:
give the fetus favorable emotional
Page 229 and 230:
weak nations of the East, but we ca
Page 231 and 232:
Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
Page 233 and 234:
Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
Page 235 and 236:
major impact on health policy and a
Page 237 and 238:
and hat. She has the images and doc
Page 239 and 240:
Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
Page 241 and 242:
we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
Page 243 and 244:
A similar organization in Changsha,
Page 245 and 246:
Articles about these clubs in Weste
Page 247 and 248:
we can see a struggle not just over
Page 249 and 250:
Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
Page 251 and 252:
Along with images of people, these
Page 253 and 254:
Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
Page 255 and 256:
MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
Page 257 and 258:
- Simpson’s straight perforator -
Page 259 and 260:
wonders how a jieshengpo could have
Page 261 and 262:
elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
Page 263 and 264:
CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
Page 265 and 266:
often moved around for jobs or took
Page 267 and 268:
My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
Page 269 and 270:
1941, she helped to establish Sichu
Page 271 and 272:
centers that included maternal and
Page 273 and 274:
those trained were midwives or “y
Page 275 and 276:
all women go to hospitals to have t
Page 277 and 278:
examinations, supine position, and
Page 279 and 280:
APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
Page 281 and 282:
d. Make investigation into existing
Page 283 and 284:
BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
Page 285 and 286:
"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
Page 287 and 288:
Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
Page 289 and 290:
Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
Page 291 and 292:
Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
Page 293 and 294:
Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
Page 295 and 296:
Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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