BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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After learning about the inner workings of her body, the expectant mother could choose (if she had the money and means) to give birth in a hospital, or at least be attended in her home by a modern midwife or physician. If she chose this route, she was likely subjected to a series of tests and measurements. Republican-era scientists and pseudo-scientists took measurements of every possible bodily characteristic that represented the physical and mental ideal of the strong, healthy, intelligent human. Male and female infants, children, and adults were not exempt from this scrutiny of cranium size, breast size, amount of body hair, body odors, height, weight, length of menstrual cycle, and so on. Babies in health clinics were weighed and measured, schoolchildren were subjected to extensive physical exams, and adults who patronized modern hospitals (or sometimes quack doctors) sometimes underwent embarrassing and uncomfortable tests, all in the name of nation building and modern scientific progress. Again, we encounter the idea of controlling the body, controlling the birth, by measuring, photographing, illustrating, describing, drawing. 557 After the baby was born, the mother could choose to attend Well-Baby Clinics or Mothers’ Club meetings. There were also mothers-in-law meetings, for they often had control over their daughters-in-law and were seen as more resistant to change. Figure 6 shows such a meeting with grandfather sitting in, perhaps to make sure nothing suspicious was underfoot in this gathering of women. These clubs, which were usually run by hospitals or midwifery or nursing schools, were intended to reduce the high infant mortality rate and to introduce septic and modern methods of child-care. In addition to baby weight checks, cursory physical examinations, and inoculations, the mother could learn how to care for her child. For example, 557 Farquhar, “For Your Reading Pleasure;” Sarah Franklin, "Postmodern Procreation: A Cultural Account of Assisted Reproduction," in Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction, eds. Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995): 323-45, Martin, The Woman in the Body. 231
we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesline with clean clothes, a baby bathtub, crib, bassinet, and diapering paraphernalia. Some of these organizations, like one at the Shanxi Hua County Public Health Station, distributed clean gauze with which to wrap the umbilical cord. 558 (A common method of tetanus transmission was the mud or dung often used to pack the cord stump.) The Mothers’ Club attached to the Cheeloo Medical School in Jinan, Shandong Province, intended to “[lay] the foundation stone for the child’s habits.” 559 They gave demonstrations and lectures on the following topics: suitable food and clothing; daily routine at birth, 6 months, and 12 months; clean water and its appropriate vessels; infant skin care; infant formula preparation; fresh air and sunshine; dental hygiene; and development. The Mother’s Association in Nanjing (Nanking), financed and staffed by the Nanjing Public Health Bureau, taught weekly classes in mothercraft, including “marriage problems, child welfare, family budget and house-keeping, general hygiene, disease prevention, first aid, and other kindred subjects.” 560 The First National Midwifery School, under the Beiping Child Health Institute, began similar mothercraft classes in 1930 because “it is the mothers who can actually practice child health and it is the mothers who build toward ‘school’ and ‘adult’ health. Before the mothers can be expected to undertake this responsibility they must be ‘health conscious.’” 561 The mothers were expected not only to learn modern methods of health and child care, but also to spread this knowledge in their communities. The FNMS also distributed informational leaflets on maternal and child health, with such titles as “Important Hints for Expected Mothers, Parturient Mothers and On the Care of Infants,” “How to Maintain Health and Prevent Abnormalities for Antepartum, Partum, and Postpartum Mothers,” and “Hints on Proper Food 558 Neizhengbu, Neizheng Nianjian. 559 Annie V. Scott MD, "Well Baby Clinic: Its Organization and Aim," Chinese Medical Journal 50 (1936): 620-22. 560 "Mother's Association in Nanking," Chinese Medical Journal 47 (1933): 418. 561 LON-HO, "Collaboration with the Government of China." 232
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
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ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
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IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
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modern medicine as soon as it was a
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In addition to the culturally imper
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(1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
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irths were attended by untrained mi
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Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
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more important in making government
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CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
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Well into the twentieth century, mo
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pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
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This ideal of aseptic births to dec
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medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
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y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
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named the Turner Training School fo
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Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
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Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
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Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
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clinic at the temple, I presume for
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It later became the Beiyang Naval M
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and college continued jointly by th
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sent her sons to the mission school
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nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
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College for Women in Peking (establ
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medical colleges with a national st
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critical of the quality of the Chin
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Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
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CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
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authority that had previously been
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After the start of the Nationalist
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schools. The 28 medical schools in
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crisis in maternal and child health
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the only course for China to take i
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The maternity ward practice grouped
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was established for nurses to recei
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Department of Education in 1931. Du
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Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
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were established for each 50,000 pe
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Health Administration offered a gra
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Chen did institute successful progr
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February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
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as “Maternity and Child Health He
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卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
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1930s, the following schools were e
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midwife or physician in attendance,
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in a “foreign style” and funded
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and controlled by the state. As soo
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standards or else shut them down. A
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6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
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CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
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physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
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Hopkins served as the model for med
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third wife and came from a rich fam
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However, Yang was drawn to the plig
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During the next section (January to
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addition, Beiping would be the muni
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$67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
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course schools” throughout China.
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Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
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Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
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The first class opened in July 1931
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“poor theoretical instruction.”
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sessions given by an obstetrician o
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Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
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school wished to train them in fill
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in the city, undertaking periodical
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efresher courses each for local mod
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conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
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educational visits to instruct moth
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section. They accompanied the atten
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of discharge from the hospital, one
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Midwifery School and a key player i
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November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
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Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
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deaths. At the hospital that year,
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New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
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However, the largest number of wome
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Marion Yang and the First National
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egistration of births. In this way,
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In his book on professionals in Rep
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three-quarters of the profession, b
Page 189 and 190: MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
Page 191 and 192: applied their organizational struct
Page 193 and 194: participate in any scheme which pre
Page 195 and 196: THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
Page 197 and 198: health policy. In fact, in the 1930
Page 199 and 200: future, since one-third of present
Page 201 and 202: Local midwifery organizations could
Page 203 and 204: supported career woman. Several con
Page 205 and 206: Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
Page 207 and 208: Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
Page 209 and 210: Field Health Station and the FNMS,
Page 211 and 212: pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
Page 213 and 214: social standing in their community.
Page 215 and 216: leaders penned treatises on the imp
Page 217 and 218: traditional Chinese and/or scientif
Page 219 and 220: the rate was probably higher in urb
Page 221 and 222: Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
Page 223 and 224: therefore they had less life- and s
Page 225 and 226: to oneself could be passed on to on
Page 227 and 228: give the fetus favorable emotional
Page 229 and 230: weak nations of the East, but we ca
Page 231 and 232: Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
Page 233 and 234: Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
Page 235 and 236: major impact on health policy and a
Page 237 and 238: and hat. She has the images and doc
Page 239: Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
Page 243 and 244: A similar organization in Changsha,
Page 245 and 246: Articles about these clubs in Weste
Page 247 and 248: we can see a struggle not just over
Page 249 and 250: Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
Page 251 and 252: Along with images of people, these
Page 253 and 254: Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
Page 255 and 256: MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
Page 257 and 258: - Simpson’s straight perforator -
Page 259 and 260: wonders how a jieshengpo could have
Page 261 and 262: elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
Page 263 and 264: CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
Page 265 and 266: often moved around for jobs or took
Page 267 and 268: My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
Page 269 and 270: 1941, she helped to establish Sichu
Page 271 and 272: centers that included maternal and
Page 273 and 274: those trained were midwives or “y
Page 275 and 276: all women go to hospitals to have t
Page 277 and 278: examinations, supine position, and
Page 279 and 280: APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
Page 281 and 282: d. Make investigation into existing
Page 283 and 284: BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
Page 285 and 286: "Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
Page 287 and 288: Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
Page 289 and 290: Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
Page 291 and 292:
Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
Page 293 and 294:
Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
Page 295 and 296:
Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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