BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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Materials on women like this are very limited or nonexistent. Name lists from professional associations and training schools record birthplaces and dates of their members and students. School records and yearbooks, articles from professional journals, and an occasional short life story give us a glimpse into the lives of the midwives themselves. Finally, missionary hospital reports occasionally give statistical information about the women who patronized them. We can also make some inferences about the midwives based on information we have about their training programs. The requirements to enter medical school were strenuous and therefore were open only to the most advantaged women. Admission requirements for the North China Union Medical College for Women in Beijing (established in 1908) included three years of English study. All coursework was in Mandarin, but students were expected to read English to keep up with the medical literature. It was a six-year course, with the first three consisting of lectures and clinical work at the Methodist and Presbyterian women’s hospitals. In addition to the medical college, there were also two nearby boarding schools where girls could study Mandarin or make up for other educational deficiencies. In 1908 they had two students from two provinces, and in 1910 the school had at least six students from four provinces. 494 In contrast, admission requirements for midwifery schools were not as stringent, allowing girls with less education to attend. For example, the Central Field Health Station (Central Field Health Station) Central Midwifery School in Nanjing curriculum was more easily accessible. Junior middle school graduates could take a three-year course, and primary school graduates could enroll in a six-month course in hygienic midwifery. 495 Some schools, like the Central 494 Gloss, "Medical Education for Women in North China." 495 LON-HO, "Collaboration with the Government of China: First Report of the Central Field Health Station," C.H. 1195, (League of Nations Health Organization, 1934). 199
Field Health Station and the FNMS, also taught old-style midwives. In 1899 at Ningbo Hospital, Dr. Smyth’s first midwifery class was comprised of “11 middle-aged women,” presumably old- style midwives. 496 Although the requirements for midwifery programs were not as arduous, even some of the more informal ones required previous schooling. Dr. Mabel C. Poulter began midwife training in 1908 at the Women’s Hospital (established in 1901) in Fujing, near Fuzhou in Fujian province, with a class of three students. Dr. Poulter allowed only women who had gone through three years of nurse training to enroll in the midwifery program. 497 What was the socioeconomic status of a typical zhuchanshi student? We can assume that many of them would have had similar backgrounds as the nursing students. According to Shemo, Kang Cheng’s and Shi Meiyu’s students at Danforth Memorial Hospital in Jiujiang were mainly girls from poor families who needed income to help support their families before they married. Requirements for the school in 1914 were that the girls be at least 20 years old, “sound physically, and Christians.” In addition to the poor girls, there were also some daughters of officials. Those who were not Christians often did not finish their training. One nurse was the abused ex-wife of a rich Jiujiang businessman who divorced her because she was childless. 498 Another girl, Ho Yin, was the eldest daughter from a poor Christian family across the river from Jiujiang. She had been betrothed at birth to a poor orphaned “ignorant country boy.” After her father died, she helped to pay for his tuition along with that of her two younger brothers. Neither of these women had family support and had to make a living on their own. Other nurses and midwives may have had family support. The member lists for the Guangzhou Midwifery Association show a large number of women from Shunde (Cantonese sundak, 顺德), the same 496 Wong and Wu, History of Chinese Medicine, 370. 497 Ibid., 398. 498 Shemo, ""An Army of Women,’” 199. 200
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
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ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
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IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
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modern medicine as soon as it was a
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In addition to the culturally imper
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(1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
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irths were attended by untrained mi
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Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
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more important in making government
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CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
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Well into the twentieth century, mo
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pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
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This ideal of aseptic births to dec
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medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
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y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
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named the Turner Training School fo
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Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
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Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
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Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
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clinic at the temple, I presume for
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It later became the Beiyang Naval M
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and college continued jointly by th
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sent her sons to the mission school
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nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
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College for Women in Peking (establ
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medical colleges with a national st
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critical of the quality of the Chin
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Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
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CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
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authority that had previously been
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After the start of the Nationalist
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schools. The 28 medical schools in
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crisis in maternal and child health
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the only course for China to take i
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The maternity ward practice grouped
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was established for nurses to recei
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Department of Education in 1931. Du
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Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
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were established for each 50,000 pe
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Health Administration offered a gra
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Chen did institute successful progr
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February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
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as “Maternity and Child Health He
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卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
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1930s, the following schools were e
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midwife or physician in attendance,
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in a “foreign style” and funded
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and controlled by the state. As soo
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standards or else shut them down. A
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6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
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CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
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physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
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Hopkins served as the model for med
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third wife and came from a rich fam
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However, Yang was drawn to the plig
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During the next section (January to
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addition, Beiping would be the muni
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$67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
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course schools” throughout China.
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Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
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Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
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The first class opened in July 1931
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“poor theoretical instruction.”
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sessions given by an obstetrician o
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Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
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school wished to train them in fill
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Page 165 and 166: section. They accompanied the atten
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Page 169 and 170: Midwifery School and a key player i
Page 171 and 172: November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
Page 173 and 174: Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
Page 175 and 176: deaths. At the hospital that year,
Page 177 and 178: New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
Page 179 and 180: However, the largest number of wome
Page 181 and 182: Marion Yang and the First National
Page 183 and 184: egistration of births. In this way,
Page 185 and 186: In his book on professionals in Rep
Page 187 and 188: three-quarters of the profession, b
Page 189 and 190: MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
Page 191 and 192: applied their organizational struct
Page 193 and 194: participate in any scheme which pre
Page 195 and 196: THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
Page 197 and 198: health policy. In fact, in the 1930
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Page 201 and 202: Local midwifery organizations could
Page 203 and 204: supported career woman. Several con
Page 205 and 206: Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
Page 207: Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
Page 211 and 212: pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
Page 213 and 214: social standing in their community.
Page 215 and 216: leaders penned treatises on the imp
Page 217 and 218: traditional Chinese and/or scientif
Page 219 and 220: the rate was probably higher in urb
Page 221 and 222: Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
Page 223 and 224: therefore they had less life- and s
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Page 227 and 228: give the fetus favorable emotional
Page 229 and 230: weak nations of the East, but we ca
Page 231 and 232: Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
Page 233 and 234: Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
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Page 237 and 238: and hat. She has the images and doc
Page 239 and 240: Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
Page 241 and 242: we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
Page 243 and 244: A similar organization in Changsha,
Page 245 and 246: Articles about these clubs in Weste
Page 247 and 248: we can see a struggle not just over
Page 249 and 250: Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
Page 251 and 252: Along with images of people, these
Page 253 and 254: Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
Page 255 and 256: MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
Page 257 and 258: - Simpson’s straight perforator -
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wonders how a jieshengpo could have
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elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
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CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
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often moved around for jobs or took
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My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
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1941, she helped to establish Sichu
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centers that included maternal and
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those trained were midwives or “y
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all women go to hospitals to have t
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examinations, supine position, and
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APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
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d. Make investigation into existing
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
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"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
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Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
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Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
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Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
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Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
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Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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