BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN'S HEALTH: MODERN ...

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environments of Chinese children were often detrimental to their health. By going into mothers’ homes on home visits (see Chapter Five) and tracking statistical information, the FNMS hoped to be able to lower the maternal and infant mortality rates and improve the health of mothers and infants nationwide. Based on office and home visitation rates, the mothers were resistant to this regimented schedule of examinations. Between November 1929 and June 1930, the service averaged only 3.7 visits per case. This did not change much over three years, for between July 1930 and June 1931 the average number of visits was 3.4, and between July 1931 and June 1932 the number was 3.7. 396 It rose slightly in 1933 to 4.0, 397 and by 1935 it was 4.41. 398 Between 1932 and 1933, the FNMS tracked 1,598 confinement cases. Of these, the FNMS attended 1,057, other hospitals attended 89, other Western-trained physicians and midwives took care of 56, old- type midwives took care of 86, relatives or neighbors attended 115, and the rest were unknown because they moved. A substantial number of confinements was still attended by old-type midwives or relatives/neighbors (12.6 percent), and we can assume that at least some of the 195 unknown cases had similar results. Of those initial 1,598 cases, the FNMS expected 11,111 antenatal visits but actually saw only 5,410 of these (48.7 percent). 399 Numerous visitors came to the school to observe the FNMS’s practices, such as the Beiping Woman’s Club, the Beiping Yi Yu Hui (Mother’s Club), postgraduate medical students from PUMC’s OB/GYN department and Beiping Health Demonstration Station, students from Yenching University’s Sociology Department, local high school students, and even students from the Shaanxi Police Training School. Marion Yang assisted these and other organizations in building and creating their maternal and child health programs. As head of the First National 396 "Fourth Annual Report, FNMS." 397 "Fifth Annual Report, FNMS." 398 "Sixth Annual Report, FNMS," 9. 399 "Fifth Annual Report, FNMS." 159
Midwifery School and a key player in the National Midwifery Board, Yang was in a unique position to mold China’s maternal and child health services based on her ideas and desires. Outside Beijing, Marion Yang was involved in spreading her vision of good health care for all mothers and infants nationwide. The FNMS helped to raise the standards of midwifery education nationwide and assisted the National Midwifery Board in investigating and registering such schools. In 1930, the only school that could fulfill National Midwifery Board requirements was the FNMS, but by the end of 1932 one other school was registered, the Tongde Midwifery School in Shanghai. Two others were recommended for registration: the “Kuang-ki” Midwifery School in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province; and the Zhejiang Provincial Midwifery School, also in Hangzhou. The following schools were recommended to make improvements before registering: Hangzhou Midwifery School and Jisheng Midwifery school in Hangzhou, Huimin Midwifery School in Beiping, the Huisheng Midwifery School and Dade Midwifery School in Shanghai, and the Jiangsu Provincial Midwifery School in Jinjiang. Furthermore, nine others were to be investigated. Two schools were closed after investigation: the Yenji Midwifery School in Beiping and the Guangdong Hospital Midwifery School in Nanjing. 400 In 1934-35, six midwifery schools in Beiping (including a municipal one) were closed “through the influence of the standards set by the First National Midwifery School.” 401 The FNMS helped to reinforce government standards which, in reality, the FNMS created, through Marion Yang. By 1932, several other organizations around the country had requested advice and personnel from the school, undertaken primarily by Marion Yang. For example, in 1932-33, Yang took five leaves of absence for a total of 50 days to go on such advising trips. 402 These 400 "Fourth Annual Report, FNMS." Chinese names were not listed for these schools, so I am unable to provide translations. 401 "Sixth Annual Report, FNMS," 3. 402 "Fifth Annual Report, FNMS," 3. 160
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BUILDING THE NATION THROUGH WOMEN
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Copyright © by Tina Phillips 2006
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family and community. This research
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LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Curriculum for t
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PREFACE This work would have not be
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healthy, intelligent, male offsprin
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New midwives (zhuchanshi 助产士,
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traditional Chinese medical profess
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Republican and Nationalist eras (19
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the Rockefeller Foundation, one of
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unscientific jumble of superstition
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maternal and child health care cent
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uilding efforts after the fall of t
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ways, imports, Chinese medical univ
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IMPERIALISM Some have argued that W
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modern medicine as soon as it was a
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In addition to the culturally imper
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(1927-1937), the Nationalist govern
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irths were attended by untrained mi
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Communist Party’s “barefoot doc
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more important in making government
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CHAPTER ONE. LAYING THE FOUNDATION:
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Well into the twentieth century, mo
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pamphlets like Infant Care and Pren
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This ideal of aseptic births to dec
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medical beliefs. 73 Furthermore, so
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y the Rockefeller Foundation’s Ch
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named the Turner Training School fo
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Cochrane subsequently convinced Cix
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Medical Missionary Society. Dr. Mai
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Hongzhang to help his struggling ho
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clinic at the temple, I presume for
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It later became the Beiyang Naval M
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and college continued jointly by th
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sent her sons to the mission school
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nationalist reforms. A group of Nan
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College for Women in Peking (establ
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medical colleges with a national st
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critical of the quality of the Chin
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Boxer indemnity money that the Unit
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CHAPTER TWO. MIDWIFERY EDUCATION AN
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authority that had previously been
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After the start of the Nationalist
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schools. The 28 medical schools in
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crisis in maternal and child health
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the only course for China to take i
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The maternity ward practice grouped
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was established for nurses to recei
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Department of Education in 1931. Du
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Furthermore, it was hard to get qua
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were established for each 50,000 pe
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Health Administration offered a gra
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Chen did institute successful progr
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February 1936, they surveyed 1,000
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as “Maternity and Child Health He
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卫生模范区) was begun in 1927
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1930s, the following schools were e
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midwife or physician in attendance,
Page 117 and 118: in a “foreign style” and funded
Page 119 and 120: and controlled by the state. As soo
Page 121 and 122: standards or else shut them down. A
Page 123 and 124: 6. If, after a birth, there is bloo
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER THREE. THE JIESHENGPO MEET
Page 127 and 128: physicians. Thus, Marion Yang’s m
Page 129 and 130: Hopkins served as the model for med
Page 131 and 132: third wife and came from a rich fam
Page 133 and 134: However, Yang was drawn to the plig
Page 135 and 136: During the next section (January to
Page 137 and 138: addition, Beiping would be the muni
Page 139 and 140: $67,608, of which $38,080 was suppl
Page 141 and 142: course schools” throughout China.
Page 143 and 144: Table 3.1: Curriculum for the Two-Y
Page 145 and 146: Table 3.2: Curriculum for the Six-M
Page 147 and 148: The first class opened in July 1931
Page 149 and 150: “poor theoretical instruction.”
Page 151 and 152: sessions given by an obstetrician o
Page 153 and 154: Buddhist” contributed $1,000 to t
Page 155 and 156: school wished to train them in fill
Page 157 and 158: in the city, undertaking periodical
Page 159 and 160: efresher courses each for local mod
Page 161 and 162: conditions.” 382 Furthermore, the
Page 163 and 164: educational visits to instruct moth
Page 165 and 166: section. They accompanied the atten
Page 167: of discharge from the hospital, one
Page 171 and 172: November 25-December 8), Zhangzhou
Page 173 and 174: Suiyuan 3 Hebei 50 Shaanxi 3 Shando
Page 175 and 176: deaths. At the hospital that year,
Page 177 and 178: New Cases Return Visits Table 3.6:
Page 179 and 180: However, the largest number of wome
Page 181 and 182: Marion Yang and the First National
Page 183 and 184: egistration of births. In this way,
Page 185 and 186: In his book on professionals in Rep
Page 187 and 188: three-quarters of the profession, b
Page 189 and 190: MEDICAL PROFESSIONALIZATION IN CHIN
Page 191 and 192: applied their organizational struct
Page 193 and 194: participate in any scheme which pre
Page 195 and 196: THE CHINA MEDICAL BOARD AND PEKING
Page 197 and 198: health policy. In fact, in the 1930
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Page 201 and 202: Local midwifery organizations could
Page 203 and 204: supported career woman. Several con
Page 205 and 206: Bethel trained nurse-evangelists to
Page 207 and 208: Mission Hospital of Nanjing. She ta
Page 209 and 210: Field Health Station and the FNMS,
Page 211 and 212: pharmaceutics. According to Peabody
Page 213 and 214: social standing in their community.
Page 215 and 216: leaders penned treatises on the imp
Page 217 and 218: traditional Chinese and/or scientif
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the rate was probably higher in urb
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Ono Kazuko’s translation reads,
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therefore they had less life- and s
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to oneself could be passed on to on
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give the fetus favorable emotional
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weak nations of the East, but we ca
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Figure 5.1: Advertisement for Dr. W
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Figure 5.2: Advertisement for Japan
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major impact on health policy and a
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and hat. She has the images and doc
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Figure 5.5: Monthly position of pre
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we can see in Figure 5.6 a clothesl
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A similar organization in Changsha,
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Articles about these clubs in Weste
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we can see a struggle not just over
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Figure 5.8: Tuqiang Advanced Midwif
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Along with images of people, these
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Figure 5.10: Guangzhou Municipal Ho
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MODERN CURRICULA The curricula that
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- Simpson’s straight perforator -
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wonders how a jieshengpo could have
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elieve pregnancy discomfort. Furthe
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CONCLUSION Childbirth in China unde
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often moved around for jobs or took
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My research ends in 1937 at the Jap
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1941, she helped to establish Sichu
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centers that included maternal and
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those trained were midwives or “y
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all women go to hospitals to have t
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examinations, supine position, and
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APPENDIX A RULES GOVERNING THE ADMI
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d. Make investigation into existing
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, Andrew. The Sys
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"Bulletin of the Hackett Medical Co
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Franklin, Sarah. "Postmodern Procre
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Ingram, Ruth. "Midwifery Training,"
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Maxwell, J. Preston. “Scheme for
Page 293 and 294:
Rogaski, Ruth. "Hygenic Modernity i
Page 295 and 296:
Verdery, Katherine. "From Parent-St
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