BIOENERGY FOR EUROPE: WHICH ONES FIT BEST?

5.2 Socio-economic aspects 81
ple is the time consumption of soil preparation, which is highest and therefore most expensive in various
crops in the Netherlands and in Switzerland.
Table 5-2 Production costs of biofuels at farm level (€/GJ useful energy)
Austria Denmark France Germany Greece Italy Nether- Switzer-
lands land
Triticale 12 12 9 11
Rape seed 40 52 43 53 158
Sunflower 55 50 60
Sugar beet 7 17 17
Hemp 16
Miscanthus 1 2 3 4
Willow 4 4 6
Wheat straw 2.0 0.3 1.7 0.3 0.2
Wood logs 7 5 9
Useful energy output after combustion is calculated by the yield per ha * caloric value * efficiency of combustion.
The most important explanation for variations in costs per ha is the difference in yields. In general,
costs per ha are higher in countries with higher yields. Differences in yields are mainly caused by differences
in soil and climate conditions. It is typical that differences in actual yields are most profound
with the perennial crops, e.g. for Miscanthus in Germany yield is 14,380 kg/ha and in France 25,600
kg/ha. The same applies for willow, with a yield in Germany of 9,850 kg/ha and in The Netherlands of
19,250 kg/ha. These differences may also be explained by differences in experience with the crop and
its cultivation. There was no standard methodology used for assessing yields from relatively new crops.
In Table 5-2 (costs per MJ useful energy) the variation between the results is much smaller. This is due
to the relation between yields and produced amount of useful energy. The results can be seen as an indication
for the attractiveness of various energy crops for farmers. Low costs per MJ means low costs per
ha and a high energy yield, thus a high income. Of course the results are only an indication, as conversion
costs can be rather high and fuel prices will differ. Furthermore, farmers may have farm specific
reasons to grow energy crops. For example, perennial crops are not easy to implement in an intensive
arable farm.
Conclusions on production costs
For the farming phase these can be best be drawn on the basis of Table 5-2:
• The most interesting option is heat generation from wheat straw. Straw is a residue, to which only a
small part of the production costs is allocated.
• The second best options are heat production by willow, Miscanthus and wood logs. The dry matter
yields for these perennial energy crops or residues are relatively high. This is reflected in the farmers’
cost range of 1 to 9 Euro/GJ useful energy.
• Farm phase costs for triticale (electricity) and sugar beet (ETBE) are slightly higher.
• Finally the farming costs for rape seed (RME) and sunflower (SME) production are clearly much
higher (around 50 Euro/GJ useful energy).
5.2.2 Employment
Data on the effect of biofuels on employment are scarce and mainly concern estimates at a global level.
However, some observations can be made.
Sector level estimates: in the Community’s “White Paper” (European Commission 1997) it is stated
that “biomass has the particularity of creating large numbers of jobs for the production of raw material.”
The so-called TERES II study predicts that renewable energy sources (mainly biomass, wind and solar
energy) will create 500,000 direct jobs in the renewable sector and indirect jobs in the supplying sec-