Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is transformed into a nongaseous element. Subsequent transformations in the series take place in the air. Thus, radon and its progeny are the principal source of naturally occurring atmospheric radioactivity. In addition to the radionuclides in these series, there are singly occurring natural radionuclides. Chief among the singly occurring radionuclides is 40 K, whose half-life is about 1.3 × 10 9 years and which was created when the world was created. Carbon-14 and tritium, 3 H, are two other radionuclides of interest. Their half-lives are very short in a geological context and they are continuously replenished by the interaction between cosmic radiation and the atmosphere. X-rays, or bremsstrahlung radiation, are produced whenever high-energy, charged particles are abruptly stopped. This phenomenon is the basis for the conventional Xray machines that are used in medical diagnosis, in industry, and in science. Because of the energy limitation of conventional X-ray tubes, X-rays whose energy is greater than about 200 keV are generated in linear accelerators. Electrons can be accelerated to hundreds of MeV before they are either caused to strike a target in order to convert some of the electron beam’s energy into X-rays, or the electron beam is extracted for electron irradiation. Linear accelerators from about 6 MeV to about 18 MeV are widely used in hospitals to treat deep-seated cancers. Cyclotrons are used to accelerate heavy ions, such as protons, deuterons, and alpha particles ( 4 He nuclei), to a velocity that is about 10% of the speed of light. Cyclotrons today are used mainly for the production of short-lived radionuclides for medical uses. m Problems 4.1. Carbon 14 is a pure beta emitter that decays to 14N. If the exact atomic masses of the parent and daughter are 14.007687 and 14.007520 atomic mass units, respectively, calculate the kinetic energy of the most energetic beta particle. 4.2. If 1.0 MBq (27 mCi) of 131I is needed for a diagnostic test, and if 3 days elapse between shipment of the radioiodine and its use in the test, how many Bq must be shipped? To how many mCi does this correspond? 4.3. The gamma radiation from 1 mL of a solution containing 370-Bq (0.01-μCi) 198 131 Au and 185-Bq (0.005-μCi) I is counted daily over a 16-day period. If the detection efficiency of the scintillation counter is 10% for all the quantum energies involved, what will be the relative counting rates of the 131I and 198Au at time t = 0, t = 3 days, t = 8 days, and t = 16 days? Plot the daily total counting rates on semilog paper and write the equation of the curve of total count rate versus time. 4.4. The following counting rates were obtained on a sample that was identified as a pure beta emitter: Day 0 1 2 3 5 10 20 cpm 5500 5240 5000 4750 4320 3400 2050
136 CHAPTER 4 (a) Plot the data on semilog paper. (b) Determine the half-life from the graph. (c) What is the value of the transformation constant (in per day)? (d) Write the equation for the decay curve. (e) What is the radionuclide in the sample? 4.5. If we start with 5 mg of 210 Pb, what would be the activity of this sample 10-years later? 4.6. The decay constant for 235 U is 9.72 × 10 −10 yr −1 . Compute the number of transformations per second in a 500 mg sample of 235 U. 4.7. Two hundred megabecquerels (5.4 mCi) of 210 Po are necessary for a certain ionization source. How many grams of 210 Po does this represent? 4.8. How long would it take for 99.9% of 137 Cs to decay, if its half-life is 30 years? 4.9. How long will it take for each of the following radioisotopes to decrease to 0.0001% of its initial activity? (a) 99Mo (b) 99mTc (c) 131I (d) 125I 4.10. For use in carcinogenesis studies, benzo(a)pyrene is tagged with 3H to a specific activity of 4 × 1011 Bq/mmol. If there is only one 3H atom on a tagged molecule, what percentage of the benzo(a)pyrene molecules is tagged with 3H? 4.11. How many alpha particles are emitted per minute by 1 cm3 222 of Rn at a temperature of 27◦C and a pressure of 100,000 Pa? 4.12. Calculate the number of beta particles emitted per minute by 1 kg of KCl if 40K emits one beta particle per transformation. 4.13. Iodine-125, a widely used isotope in the practice of nuclear medicine, has a half-life of 60 days. (a) How long will it take for 4 MBq (∼1 μCi) to decrease to 0.1% of its initial activity? (b) What is the mean life of 125I? 4.14. If uranium ore contains 10% U3O8, how many metric tons are necessary to produce 1gofradium if the extraction process is 90% efficient? 4.15. How much 234U is there in 1 metric ton of the uranium ore containing 10% U3O8? 4.16. Compare the activity of the 234U to that of the 235U and the 238U in the ore of problems 4.14 and 4.15. 4.17. Calculate the activity, in becquerels and microcuries, of each of the uranium isotopes in 1 g of natural uranium and then using these results, together with the values for the isotopic abundances, calculate the activity of 1gofnatural uranium.
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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Page 102 and 103: R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
Page 104 and 105: R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
Page 106 and 107: R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
Page 108 and 109: Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
Page 110 and 111: R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
Page 112 and 113: R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
Page 114 and 115: R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
Page 116 and 117: R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
Page 118 and 119: R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
Page 120 and 121: R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
Page 122 and 123: Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
Page 124 and 125: and the number of radioactive atoms
Page 126 and 127: W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
Page 128 and 129: TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
Page 130 and 131: TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
Page 132 and 133: R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
Page 134 and 135: The integrand can be changed to the
Page 136 and 137: Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
Page 138 and 139: R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
Page 140 and 141: R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
Page 142 and 143: Expanding and collecting terms, we
Page 144 and 145: R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
Page 146 and 147: Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
Page 148 and 149: Substituting the value of r from Eq
Page 152 and 153: R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
Page 154 and 155: R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
Page 156 and 157: R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
Page 158 and 159: INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
Page 160 and 161: INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
Page 170 and 171: TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
Page 186 and 187: W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
Page 878 and 879:
Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
Page 886 and 887:
Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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