Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a pure high-energy beta emitter, the bremsstrahlung produced in the shield must be considered in the shielding design. Neutron shielding is based on slowing down fast neutrons to thermal energies and then absorbing the thermal neutrons. Low-atomic-numbered materials, such as water, and hydrogenous compounds, such as paraffin, are effective slowing-down materials. The thermalized neutrons are most readily absorbed by materials that have a high absorption cross section, such as boron or cadmium. In designing shielding against neutrons, it must be remembered that absorption of neutrons can lead to capture gammas and to induced radioactivity and the consequent production of gamma radiation. Although radiation protection measures can be designed to reduce radiation dose to levels approaching that of the natural background, expenditure of resources to do this may be wasteful since the benefits that accrue from such low doses are less than the benefits that might result from expenditure of these resources in other avenues. Accordingly, we optimize the degree of radiation protection at the level at which the benefits are equal to the cost of protection. m Problems 10.1. A Po–Be neutron source emits 107 neutrons/s of average energy 4 MeV. The source is to be stored in a paraffin shield of sufficient thickness to reduce the fast flux at the surface to 10 neutrons/cm2 /s. Consider paraffin to be essentially CH2 (for the purpose of this problem) and to have a density of 0.89 g/cm3 . (a) What is the minimum thickness of the paraffin shield? (b) If the slowing-down length is 6 cm, the thermal diffusion length is 3 cm, and the diffusion coefficient is 0.381 cm, what will be the thermal-neutron leakage flux at the surface of the shield? (c) What is the gamma-ray dose rate, due to the hydrogen-capture gammas, at the surface of the paraffin shield? 10.2. An X-ray therapy machine operates at 250 kVp and 20 mA. At a target to skin distance of 100 cm, the dose rate is 0.2 Gy/min. The workload is 100 Gy/wk. The X-ray tube is constrained to point vertically downward. At a distance of 4 m from the target is an uncontrolled waiting room. Calculate the thickness of lead to be added to the wall if the total thickness of the wall (which is made of hollow tile and plaster, density 2.35 g/cm3 ) is 2 in. (5 cm). 10.3. A7.4 × 1013 Bq (2000 Ci) 60Co teletherapy unit is to be installed in an existing concrete room in the basement of a hospital so that the source is 4 m from the north and west walls—which are 30 in. thick. Beyond the north wall is a fully occupied controlled room. Beyond the west wall is a public parking lot. The useful beam is to be directed toward the north wall for a maximum of 5 hours per week during radiation therapy. The beam will be directed at the west wall 1 hour per week. Considering only the radiation from the primary beam, how much additional shielding, if any, is required for each of the walls?
576 CHAPTER 10 10.4. A radiochemist wants to carry a small vial containing 2 × 109 Bq (∼ 50 mCi) 60Co solution from one hood to another. If the estimated carrying time is 3 minutes, what would be the minimum length of the tongs used to carry the vial in order that his dose not exceed 60 μGy (6 mrads) during the operation? 10.5. A viewing window for use with an isotope that emits 1-MeV gamma rays is to be made from a saturated aqueous solution of KI in a rectangular battery jar. What will be the attenuation factor, assuming conditions of good geometry, if the solution thickness is 10 cm and if the glass walls are equivalent in their attenuation property to 1-mm lead? A saturated solution of KI may be made by adding 30-g KI to 21-mL water to give a 30-mL solution at 25◦C. Total attenuation cross sections for 1-MeV gamma rays for the elements in the solution are given in the table below: ATTENUATION CROSS ELEMENT SECTION (BARNS) K 4 H 0.2 I 12 O 1.7 10.6. Lead foil, whose specific gravity is 10.4, consists of an alloy containing 87% Pb, 12% Sn, and 1% Cu. If the mass attenuation coefficients for these three elements are 3.50, 1.17, and 0.325 cm2 /g respectively for X-rays whose wavelength is 0.098 ˚A, and if the specific gravities of the three elements are 11.3, 7.3, and 8.9, respectively: (a) Calculate the mass and linear attenuation coefficients for lead foil. (b) What thickness of lead foil would be required to attenuate the intensity of 57Co gamma-rays by a factor of 25? 10.7. A hypodermic syringe that will be used in an experiment in which 90Sr solution will be injected has a glass barrel whose wall is 1.5 mm thick. If the density of the glass is 2.5 g/cm3 , how thick, in millimeters, must we make a Lucite sleeve that will fit around the syringe if no beta particles are to come through the Lucite? The density of the Lucite is 1.2 g/cm3 . 10.8. A room in which a 7.4 × 1013 Bq (2000 Ci) 137Cs source will be exposed has the following layout:
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 521 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
Page 540 and 541: Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
Page 542 and 543: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
Page 544 and 545: X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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Page 548 and 549: where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
Page 550 and 551: 535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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Page 558 and 559: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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Page 562 and 563: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
Page 564 and 565: from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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Page 568 and 569: Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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Page 572 and 573: The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Page 600 and 601: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
Page 604 and 605: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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Page 608 and 609: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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Page 624 and 625: Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
Page 626 and 627: TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
Page 628 and 629: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
Page 630 and 631: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
Page 632 and 633: INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
Page 820 and 821:
APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
Page 826 and 827:
Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
Page 828 and 829:
Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
Page 830 and 831:
APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
Page 832 and 833:
817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
Page 870 and 871:
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
Page 872 and 873:
TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
Page 874 and 875:
12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
Page 876 and 877:
INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
Page 878 and 879:
Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
Page 880 and 881:
Energy Research and Development Adm
Page 882 and 883:
International Organization for Stan
Page 884 and 885:
n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
Page 886 and 887:
Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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