Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 103:Control of Radon in Houses, 1989. Report No. 144: Radiation Protection for Particle Accelerator Facilities, 2003. Radiological Health Handbook, Rev. ed. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Rockville, MD, 1970. Patterson, H. W., and Thomas, R. H. Accelerator Health Physics. Academic Press, New York, 1973. Patterson, H. W., and Thomas, R. A History of Accelerator Radiation Protection. Ramtrans Publishing, Ashford, Kent, U.K., 1994. Rutherford, E., Chadwick, J., and Ellis, C. D. Radiations from Radioactive Substances. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1930. Semat, H., and Albright, J. R. Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics, 5th ed. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1972. Shleien, B., Slabak, L., and Birkey, B., Handbook of Health Physics and Radiological Health. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 1998. Stannard, J. N. Radioactivity and Health; A History. Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, Publication DOE/RL/01830-T59, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, 1988. Sullivan, A. H. A Guide to Radiation and Radioactivity Levels Near High Energy Particle Accelerators, Ramtrans Publishing, Ashford, Kent, U.K., 1992. Turner, J. E. Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995. Varian. Linatron High Energy X-Ray Applications, Varian, Inc., Palo Alto, CA, 1975. Waltar, A. Radiation and Modern Life: Marie Curie’s Dream Fulfilled. Prometheus Press, Tonbridge, Kent, U.K., 2004.
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
Page 106 and 107: R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
Page 108 and 109: Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
Page 110 and 111: R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
Page 112 and 113: R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
Page 114 and 115: R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
Page 116 and 117: R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
Page 118 and 119: R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
Page 120 and 121: R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
Page 122 and 123: Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
Page 124 and 125: and the number of radioactive atoms
Page 126 and 127: W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
Page 128 and 129: TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
Page 130 and 131: TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
Page 132 and 133: R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
Page 134 and 135: The integrand can be changed to the
Page 136 and 137: Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
Page 138 and 139: R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
Page 140 and 141: R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
Page 142 and 143: Expanding and collecting terms, we
Page 144 and 145: R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
Page 146 and 147: Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
Page 148 and 149: Substituting the value of r from Eq
Page 150 and 151: R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
Page 152 and 153: R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
Page 154 and 155: R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
Page 158 and 159: INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
Page 160 and 161: INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
Page 170 and 171: TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
Page 186 and 187: W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
Page 200 and 201: Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
Page 202 and 203: W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
Page 204 and 205: since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
Page 588 and 589:
where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
Page 600 and 601:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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Page 604 and 605:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
Page 608 and 609:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
Page 610 and 611:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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Page 616 and 617:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
Page 622 and 623:
Page 624 and 625:
Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
Page 626 and 627:
TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
Page 628 and 629:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
Page 638 and 639:
W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
Page 644 and 645:
INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
Page 670 and 671:
Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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Page 756 and 757:
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
Page 788 and 789:
Page 790 and 791:
Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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Page 802 and 803:
Page 804 and 805:
where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
Page 872 and 873:
TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
Page 874 and 875:
12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
Page 876 and 877:
INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
Page 880 and 881:
Energy Research and Development Adm
Page 882 and 883:
International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
Page 886 and 887:
Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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