Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiation Safety Measures 679 A maintenance worker in a nuclear power plant was accidentally exposed to an aerosol consisting of 60 Co (1-μm AMAD, class W), and 54 Mn (1-μm AMAD, class D). Follow-up dosimetry included whole-body counting, and urine and feces analyses. However, the data from the urine and feces were found to be useless. Using the following sequential postexposure measured body burdens of the two isotopes, infer the intake and calculate the dose assigned to the accidental exposure. (Data adapted from Lessard, 1987. 2 ) DAYS POST INTAKE MEASURED BODY BURDEN (Bq) TOTAL BODY IRF 60 Co 54 Mn 60 Co 54 Mn 1 3.4 × 10 4 3 × 10 3 5.66 × 10 −1 5.77 × 10 −1 2 3.7 × 10 4 2.6 × 10 3 4.23 × 10 −1 4.96 × 10 −1 8 2.2 × 10 3 1.8 × 10 3 1.71 × 10 −1 3.39 × 10 −1 41 1.9 × 10 3 8.3 × 10 2 1.08 × 10 −1 1.57 × 10 −1 Solution If there had been only one measurement of the body burdens, then our best estimate of the intake would have been determined by dividing the measured body burden by the appropriate IRF. However, since we have four measurements made at successive times after exposure, we must consider statistical variability and possible differences among the variances (recall that the variance is the square of the standard deviation) of the several measurements. Since the variance of a radioactivity measurement is the number of counts, the measurement with the greatest number of counts will have the greatest effect on the best estimate of the intake. To account for this variability, the best estimate of the intake is given by I = where i (IRF) i i (IRF) 2 i Ai , (13.17) Ai = the ith measurement of the body burden and (IRF)i = IRF associated with the ith measurement. 2 Lessard, E. T. et al. Interpretation of Bioassay Measurements. NUREG/CR-4884, BNL-NUREG- 52063, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC, 1987.
680 CHAPTER 13 When we substitute the respective values for 60 Co and 54 Mn into Eq. (13.17), we have I 60 Co = 0.566 + 0.423 + 0.171 + 0.108 (0.566) 2 (0.423)2 (0.171)2 (0.108)2 + + + 3.4 × 104 3.7 × 104 2.2 × 103 1.9 × 103 I 54 0.577 + 0.496 + 0.339 + 0.157 Mn = (0.577) 2 (0.496)2 (0.339)2 (0.157)2 + + + 3.0 × 103 2.6 × 103 1.8 × 103 8.3 × 102 = 5.2 × 10 3 Bq (0.14 μCi). = 3.8 × 10 4 Bq (1 μCi), The 10 CFR 20 lists the ALI for class W 60 Co particles as 200 μC, and for the class D 54 Mn particles the ALI is 900 μCi. The assigned dose from these intakes, therefore, is CEDE = 5000 mrems Ii μCi × ALI μCi i=1 ALIi ALI = 26 mrems (0.26 mSv) . INDIVIDUAL MONITORING 1 0.14 = 5000 + 200 900 Personal monitoring for external radiation is the continuous measurement of an individual’s exposure dose by means of one or more types of suitable instruments, such as pocket ionization chambers, film badges, electronic dosimeters, and thermoluminescent dosimeters (Chapter 9), which are carried by the individual at all times. The choice of personal monitoring instrument must be compatible with the type and energy of the radiation being measured. For example, a worker who is exposed only to 3 H, 14 C, or 35 S would wear no personal monitoring instrument, since these isotopes emit only beta particles of such low energy that they are not recorded by any of the commercially available personal monitoring devices. In vitro bioassay procedures would be indicated if personal monitoring were necessary. Workers who may be exposed to radioactive aerosols may wear a personal air sampler. This usually consists of a cassette that holds a 37-mm-diameter membrane filter through which air is drawn at a rate of 2–5 L per min by a battery-operated pump. The cassette is clipped to the worker’s garment near his nose or mouth, and thus produces a breathing-zone sample; the pump, which has an integral air-measuring device, such as a rotameter, is worn on the worker’s belt. After exposure, the filter is removed from the cassette, and the activity on its surface is measured in the counting laboratory. Such an open-faced filter collects particles of all sizes. In order to better evaluate the hazard from an aerosol, we often resort to size-selective collectors to collect a sample of “respirable dust.” The most commonly used sizeselective collector is the cyclone sampler, which is designed to capture particles with ≤4-μm AMAD. In this collector, the airstream is forced to travel in a circular path, and particles greater than a given size will be removed from the airstream by
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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Page 654 and 655: CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Page 658 and 659: Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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Page 724 and 725: SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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Page 738 and 739: Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
Page 886 and 887:
Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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