Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 245 The use of these absorbed dose fractions may be illustrated by their application to calculations of the dose rate to a 0.6-kg sphere made of tissue-equivalent material in which 1 MBq of 131 I is uniformly distributed. Solution In this case, energy will be absorbed from the beta particles and from the gamma rays. Since the range in tissue of the betas is very small, we can assume that all the beta energy is absorbed. For the gammas however, only a fraction of the energy will be absorbed. The total energy absorbed from the 131 I is simply the sum of the emitted beta energy plus the fraction of the emitted gamma-ray energy that is absorbed by the sphere. This sum is called the effective energy per transformation. The absorbed fraction of the gamma rays depends on the size of the absorbing medium and on the photon energy. Using the absorbed dose fractions given in Table 6-5 and interpolating for gammaray energies lying between those listed in the table, we calculate the absorbed gammaray energy per 131 I transformation as follows: E e(γ ) = E γi × ni × ϕi, (6.73) where i E e(γ ) = absorbed gamma-ray energy, MeV/transformation, E γ i = energy of the ith gamma photon, MeV, ni = number of photons of ith energy per transformation, and ϕi = absorbed fraction of the ith photon’s energy. PHOTON PHOTONS PER ABSORBED ABSORBED ENERGY, TRANSFORMATION, FRACTION, ENERGY Eγi (MEV) × ni × ϕ = (MeV/T) 0.723 0.016 0.123 0.0014 0.637 0.069 0.124 0.0055 0.503 0.003 0.123 0.0002 0.326 0.002 0.120 0.0001 0.177 0.002 0.112 0.0000 0.365 0.853 0.122 0.0380 0.284 0.051 0.118 0.0017 0.080 0.051 0.111 0.0005 0.164 0.006 0.111 0.0001 Ee(γ ) = 0.0474 MeV/t The mean beta energy per 131 I transformation, which corresponds to the effective energy for the betas, may be calculated by substituting the mean beta energies
246 CHAPTER 6 IODINE . 131 %/dis- Transition integr- energy tion (MeV) BETA-MINUS DECAY INPUT DATA OUTPUT DATA Other nuclear parameters Radiation Beta-1 1.6 0.25 * Allowed Beta-2 6.9 0.33 * Allowed Beta-3 0.5 0.47 * Allowed Beta-4 90.4 0.606 * Allowed Beta-5 0.6 0.81 * First forbidden unique Gamma-1 Gamma-2 Gamma-3 Gamma-4 5.06 0.6 0.18 5.06 0.0802 0.1640 0.1772 0.2843 M1, αK = 1.7, αL = 0.17 M4, αK = 29, K/L = 2.3 E2, αK = 0.189 (T), K/L = 4.0 E2, αK = 0.052 K/(L + M) = 4.0 Gamma-5 0.18 0.3258 M1, αK = 0.0285 (T), K/L = 6.0 Gamma-6 85.3 0.3645 E2 + 2% M1, αK = 0.02, K/L = 6.0 Gamma-7 Gamma-8 Gamma-9 0.32 6.9 1.6 0.5030 0.6370 0.7229 E2, αK = 0.00749 (T), αL = 0.0011 (T) E2, αK = 0.0039, αL = 0.000563 (T) M1, αK = 0.004, αL = 0.000515 (T) Ref.: Lederer, C. M. et al, Table of isotopes, 6th ed. * Endpoint energy (MeV). (T) = Theoretical value. 131 I 8.05d 53 11.8d β 1 β 2 β 5 β 3 β 4 V 9 V 8 V 7 V 6 V 5 V 4 STABLE 131 54 ×e Radiation (i) Beta-1 Beta-2 Beta-3 Beta-4 Beta-5 Gamma-1 K int. con. electron, gamma-1 L int. con. electron, gamma-1 M int. con. electron, gamma-1 Gamma-2 K int. con. electron, gamma-2 L int. con. electron, gamma-2 M int. con. electron, gamma-2 Gamma-3 K int. con. electron, gamma-3 Gamma-4 K int. con. electron, gamma-4 L int. con. electron, gamma-4 M int. con. electron, gamma-4 Gamma-5 Gamma-6 K int. con. electron, gamma-6 L int. con. electron, gamma-6 M int. con. electron, gamma-6 Gamma-7 Gamma-8 K int. con. electron, gamma-8 Gamma-9 K α-1 x-rays K α-2 x-rays K β-1 x-rays K β-2 x-rays L x-rays KLL Auger electron KLX Auger electron KXY Auger electron LMM Auger electron MXY Auger electron V 3 V 2 Mean number/ disintegration (n i ) 0.7229 0.6370 0.5030 0.3645 0.1772 0.1640 0.0802 V1 0.0 0.016 0.069 0.005 0.904 0.006 0.0173 0.0294 0.0029 0.0010 0.0001 0.0037 0.0016 0.0005 0.0014 0.0003 0.0475 0.0025 0.0005 0.0002 0.0017 0.833 0.0167 0.0028 0.0009 0.0032 0.0687 0.0003 0.0159 0.0252 0.0130 0.0070 0.0015 0.0078 0.0042 0.0018 0.0003 0.0486 0.117 Mean energy (MeV) (E i ) 0.0701 0.0955 0.1428 0.1917 0.2856 0.0802 0.0456 0.0751 0.0792 0.1640 0.1294 0.1589 0.1630 0.1772 0.1427 0.2843 0.2497 0.2793 0.2834 0.3258 0.3645 0.3299 0.3594 0.3635 0.5030 0.6370 0.6024 0.7229 0.0298 0.0295 0.0336 0.0346 0.0041 0.0245 0.0296 0.0327 0.0032 0.0009 Δi g-rad μCi-h ( ) 0.0024 0.0140 0.0015 0.3691 0.0037 0.0030 0.0029 0.0005 0.0002 0.0000 0.0010 0.0005 0.0002 0.0005 0.0001 0.0288 0.0013 0.0003 0.0001 0.0012 0.6465 0.0117 0.0021 0.0006 0.0034 0.0932 0.0004 0.0245 0.0016 0.0008 0.0005 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0003 0.0002 Figure 6-11. Transformation scheme and input data and output data for 131 I dosimetry. (Reprinted by permission of the Society of Nuclear Medicine from Dillman LT. MIRD Pamphlet No. 4: Radionuclide Decay Schemes and Nuclear Parameters for Use in Radiation Dose Estimation. J Nucl Med. March 1969; 10(2 Suppl):1–32.)
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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Page 220 and 221: Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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Page 224 and 225: RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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Page 234 and 235: 219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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Page 242 and 243: where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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Page 246 and 247: When we combine the constants in Eq
Page 248 and 249: Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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Page 264 and 265: then the total dose to the target o
Page 266 and 267: 251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
Page 268 and 269: RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
Page 270 and 271: 255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
Page 272 and 273: 257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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Page 284 and 285: Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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Page 294 and 295: 7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
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Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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