Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 37 The relationship between the peak magnetic and electric field intensities H0 and ε0 depends on the magnetic permeability μ and the electrical permittivity ∈ of the medium through which the electromagnetic wave is propagating. This relationship is given by √ √ H0 μ = ε0 ∈, (2.55) where ∈ is the permittivity of the medium. Permittivity is a measure of the capacity for storing energy in a medium that is in an electric field. The permittivity of free space is ∈0= 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 /N · m 2 , and the permittivity of any other medium is the product of the relative permittivity, k∈ and the permittivity of free space, ∈0: ∈= k∈× ∈0. The greater the value of ∈, the greater is its interaction with the ε field and the greater is its ability to store energy. Permittivity is frequency dependent and generally decreases with increasing frequency. If the wave is traveling through free space, then √ √ H0 μ0 = ε0 ∈0. (2.56) Radio waves, microwaves (radar), infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays are all electromagnetic radiations. They are qualitatively alike but differ in wavelength to form a continuous electromagnetic spectrum. All these radiations are transmitted through the atmosphere (which may be considered, for this purpose, as free space) at a speed very close to 3 × 10 8 m/s. Since the speed of all electromagnetic waves in free space is a constant, Eq. (2.47), when applied to electromagnetic waves in free space, becomes c = 3 × 10 8 m/s = f × λ. (2.57) Specifying either the frequency or wavelength of an electromagnetic wave in free space is equivalent to specifying both. Free-space wavelengths may range from 5 × 10 6 m for 60-Hz electric waves through visible light (green light has a wavelength of about 500 nanometers, or nm, and a frequency of 6 × 10 14 Hz) to short-wavelength X- and gamma radiation (whose wavelengths are on the order of 10 nm or less). There is no sharp cutoff in wavelength at either end of the spectrum nor is there a sharp dividing line between the various portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each portion blends into the next, and the lines of demarcation, shown in Figure 2-17, are arbitrarily placed to show the approximate wavelength span of the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Figure 2-17. The electromagnetic spectrum.
38 CHAPTER 2 Generally, the speed of an electromagnetic wave in any medium depends on the electrical and magnetic properties of that medium: on the permittivity and the permeability. The speed is given by 1 v = . (2.58) ∈ μ In free space, −7 N μ = μ0 = 4π × 10 A 1 ∈=∈0 = N · m2 4π × 9 × 109 C2 . Substituting the values above into Eq. (2.58) gives the speed c of an electromagnetic wave in free space: ⎛ 9 N · m2 ⎜4π × 9 × 10 v = c = ⎜ C ⎝ 2 4π × 10−7 N A 2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎠ 1/2 8 m = 3 × 10 s . An electromagnetic wave travels more slowly through a medium than through free space. The frequency of the electromagnetic wave is independent of the medium through which it travels. The wavelength is decreased, however, so that the relationship (Eq. [2.47]): v = f × λ is maintained. The wavelength in a medium is given by 1 λ = λ0 , (2.59) Ke Km where λ0 is the free-space wavelength and Ke and Km are the relative permittivity (dielectric coefficient) and relative permeability of the medium, respectively. Since the relative permeability is ≈ 1 for most biological materials and dielectrics, we can approximate Eq. (2.59) for most biological materials by 1 λ = λ0 . (2.60) Ke If the medium is a lossy dielectric (a lossy dielectric is one that absorbs energy from an electromagnetic field; all biological media are lossy), the wavelength of our electromagnetic wave within the medium is given by λ = λ0 √Ke −1/2 1 1 σ 2 + 1 + 2 2 ω ∈ (2.61)
Page 2 and 3: INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
Page 4 and 5: INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
Page 6 and 7: To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
Page 8 and 9: CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
Page 10 and 11: Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
Page 12 and 13: PREFACE The practice of radiation s
Page 14 and 15: INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
Page 18 and 19: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
Page 20 and 21: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
Page 22 and 23: and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
Page 24 and 25: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
Page 26 and 27: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
Page 28 and 29: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
Page 32 and 33: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
Page 34 and 35: Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
Page 36 and 37: Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
Page 38 and 39: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
Page 40 and 41: V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Page 42 and 43: Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
Page 44 and 45: Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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Page 48 and 49: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
Page 50 and 51: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
Page 54 and 55: or, in terms of the loss tangent,
Page 56 and 57: where Impedance t = time after clos
Page 60 and 61: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
Page 62 and 63: therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
Page 66 and 67: SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
Page 68 and 69: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
Page 70 and 71: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
Page 72 and 73: REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
Page 74 and 75: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
Page 76 and 77: Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
Page 78 and 79: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
Page 80 and 81: The energy of this photon is E = hc
Page 82 and 83: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
Page 84 and 85: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
Page 86 and 87: TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
Page 88 and 89: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
Page 90 and 91: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
Page 92 and 93: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
Page 94 and 95: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
Page 96 and 97: SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
Page 98 and 99: ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
Page 100 and 101: R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
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Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
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Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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