Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAFETY 335 Hendee, W. R. Health Effects of Low Level Radiation, Institute of Physics, London, England, 1996. Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, 4th ed. Wiley and Sons, New York, 2001. Holaday, D. A., Rushing, D. E., Coleman, R. D., et al. Control of Radon and Daughters in Uranium Mines and Calculations on Biologic Effects. Public Health Service Publication 494, Washington, DC, 1957. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna. The Radiological Accident in San Salvador. IAEA, 1990. The Radiological Accident in Soreq, 1993. The Radiological Accident in Goiania, 1988. The International Chernobyl Project, Technical Report, 1991. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU), Bethesda, MD. The Quality Factor in Radiation Protection. Report 40, 1986. Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry. Report 51, 1993. International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Publication No. 23. Reference Man: Anatomical, Physiological, and Metabolic Characteristics. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1975. James, A. Dosimetric applications of the new ICRP lung model, in Raabe, O. G., ed. Internal Radiation Dosimetry. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, 1994. Jones, R. R., and Southwood, R., eds. Radiation and Health: The Biological Effects of Low-Level Exposure to Ionizing Radiation. Wiley, Chichester, U.K., 1987. Karam, P. A., Leslie, S. A., and Anbar, A. The effects of changing atmospheric oxygen concentrations and background radiation levels on radiogenic DNA damage rates. Health Phys, 81:545–553, 2001. Kleinbaum, D. G., Kupper, L. L., and Morgenstern, H. Epidemiologic Research. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1982. Kopecky, K. J., Davis, S., Hamilton, T. E., Saporito, M. S., and Onstad, L. Estimation of thyroid radiation doses for the Hanford thyroid disease study: Results and implications for the statistical power of the epidemiological analyses. Health Phys, 87:15–32, 2004. Lea, D. Actions of Radiations on Living Cells. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1955. Little, J. B. Nontargeted effects of radiation: Implications for low dose exposures. Health Phys, 91:416–426, 2006. Lorentz, E. Radioactivity and lung cancer: A critical review of lung cancer in the miners of Schneeberg and Joachimsthal. J Natl Cancer Inst, 5:1, 1944. McLean, F. C., and Budy, A. M. Radiation, Isotopes, and Bone. Academic Press, New York, 1964. Mettler, F. A. Jr., Kelsey, C. A., and Ricks, R. C., eds. Medical Management of Radiation Accidents. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990. Mills, W.A. Estimates of human cancer risks associated with internally deposited radionuclides, in Raabe, O.G., ed. Internal Radiation Dosimetry. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, 1994. Mokrov, Y., Glagolenko, Y., and Napier, B. Reconstruction of radionuclide contamination of the Techa River caused by liquid waste discharge from radiochemical production at the Mayak Production Association. Health Phys, 79:15–23, 2000. Mossman, K. L., and Mills, W. A., eds. The Biological Basis of Radiation Protection Practice. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1992. National Council on Radiation protection and Measurements (NCRP), Bethesda, MD. No. 44. Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere—Accumulation, Biological Significance, and Control Technology, 1975. No. 46. Alpha Emitting Particles in the Lungs, 1975. No. 60. Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Radiocerium Relevant to Radiation Protection Guidelines, 1978. No. 64. Influence of Dose and Its Distribution in Time on Dose–Response Relationships for Low-LET Radiations, 1980. No. 65. Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides, 1980. No. 80. Induction of Thyroid Cancer by Ionizing Radiation, 1985. No. 89. Genetic Effects from Internally Deposited Radionuclides, 1987. No. 96. Comparative Carcinogenicity of Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals, 1989. No. 104. The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Radiations of Different Quality, 1990. No. 109. Effects of Ionizing Radiations on Aquatic Organisms, 1991. No. 110. Some Aspects of Strontium Radiobiology, 1991. No. 115. Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection, 1993. No. 121. Principles and Application of Collective Dose in Radiation Protection, 1995. No. 126. Uncertainties in Fatal Cancer Risk Estimates Used in Radiation Protection, 1997.
336 CHAPTER 7 No. 128. Radionuclide Exposure of the Embryo/Fetus, 1998. No. 130. Biological Effects and Exposure Limits for “Hot Particles,” 1999. No. 135. Liver Cancer Risk from Internally-Deposited Radionuclides, 2001. No. 136. Evaluation of the Linear, Non-Threshold Dose–Response Model for Ionizing Radiation, 2001. Oecd/Nea. CHERNOBYL, Ten Years On, Radiological and Health Impact. Organization for Economic Co- Operation and Development, Paris, 1996. Ottoboni, M. A. The Dose Makes the Poison, Vincente Books, Berkeley, CA, 1984. Pizzarello, D. J., and Witcofski, R. I. Basic Radiation Biology. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA, 1975. Preston, R. J. Radiation biology: Concepts for radiation protection. Health Phys, 87:3–14, 2004. Raabe, O. G. Deposition and clearance of inhaled aerosols, in Witschi, H. R. and Nettesheim, P., eds. Mechanisms in Respiratory Toxicology. CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL, 1982. Raabe, O. G. Characterizations of radioactive airborne particles, in Raabe, O. G., ed. Internal Radiation Dosimetry. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, 1994. Ron, E. Ionizing radiation and cancer risk: Evidence from epidemiology. Radiat Res, 150 (Suppl 5), S30–S41, 1998. Sanger, E. L., ed. Medical Aspects of Radiation Accidents. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1980. Seligman, P. The U.S.–Russian radiation health effects research program in the Southern Urals. Health Phys, 79:3–8, 2000. Semkow, T. M., and Parekh, P. P. Principles of gross alpha and beta radioactivity detection in water. Health Phys, 81:567–574, 2001. Simon, S. L., Bouville, A., and Land, C. Fallout from nuclear weapons tests and cancer risks. Am Sci, 94:48, 2006. Snipes, M. B. Biokinetics of inhaled radionuclides, in Raabe, O. G., ed. Internal Radiation Dosimetry. Medical Physics Publishing Co., Madison, WI, 1994. Steinhauser, F. Epidemiological evidence of radon-induced health risks, in Nazaroff, W. W., and Nero A. V., Jr., eds. Radon and Its Decay Products in Indoor Air. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988. Trabalka, J. R., and Kocher, D. C. Energy dependence of dose and dose rate effectiveness factor for low-let radiations: Potential importance to estimation of cancer risks and relationship to biological effectiveness. Health Phys, 93:17–27, 2007. Tubiana, M. The report of the French Academy of Science: Problems associated with the effects of low doses of ionizing radiation. J Radiol Prot, 18:243–248, 1998. Tannock, I. F., and Hill, R. P., ed. The Basic Science of Oncology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1987. Toohey, R. E. Biokinetics of bone-seeking radionuclides, in Raabe O. G., ed. Internal Radiation Dosimetry. Medical Physics Publishing Co., Madison, WI, 1994. Toppenberg, K. S., Hill, D. A., and Miller, D. P. Safety of radiographic imaging during pregnancy. Am Fam Physician, 59(7):1813–1820, 1999. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of atomic radiation (UNSCEAR), United Nations, New York. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, A Report to the General Assembly, 2000. Hereditary Effects of Radiation, 2001. Upton, A. C. State of the art in the 1990s: NCRP Report 136 on the scientific basis for linearity in the dose–response relationship for ionizing radiation. Health Phys, 85:15, 2003. Vargo, G. J., ed. The Chernobyl Accident: A Comprehensive Risk Assessment. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, 2000. Von Sontag, C. The Chemical Basis of Radiation Biology. Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia, PA, 1987. Wakeford, R., Antell, B. A., and Leigh, W. L. A review of causation and its use in a compensation scheme for nuclear industry workers in the United Kingdom. Health Phys, 74(1):1, 1998.
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Page 302 and 303: Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
Page 310 and 311: TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
Page 314 and 315: Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
Page 316 and 317: Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
Page 320 and 321: Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
Page 324 and 325: Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
Page 326 and 327: TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 385 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
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Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
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Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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