Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 511 37. Stopping Powers for Electrons and Positrons, 1984. 39. Determination of Dose Equivalents Resulting from External Radiation Sources, 1985. 40. The Quality Factor in Radiation Protection, 1986. 43. Determination of Dose Equivalents from External Radiation Sources—Part 2, 1988. 44. Tissue Substitutes in Radiation Dosimetry and Measurement, 1989. 45. Clinical Neutron Dosimetry—Part 1: Determination of Absorbed Dose in a Patient Treated by External Beams of Fast Neutrons, 1989. 46. Photon, Electron, Proton, and Neutron Interaction Data for Body Tissues, 1992. 46d. Photon, Electron, Proton, and Neutron Interaction Data for Body Tissues, with Data Disk, 1992. 47. Measurement of Dose Equivalents from External Photon and Electron Radiations, 1992. 50. Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy, 1993. 51. Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 1993. 52. Particle Counting in Radioactivity Measurements, 1994. 53. Gamma-Ray Spectrometry in the Environment, 1994. 55. Secondary Electron Spectra from Charged Particle Interactions, 1996. 56. Dosimetry of External Beta Rays for Radiation Protection, 1997. 57. Conversion Coefficients for use in Radiological Protection against External Radiation, 1998. 59. Clinical Proton Dosimetry, Part I, Beam Production, Beam Delivery, and Measurement of Absorbed Dose, 1998. 60. Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation, 1998. 62. Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy (Supplement to ICRU Report 60), 1999. 63. Nuclear Data for Neutron and Proton Radiotherapy and for Radiation Protection, 2000. 64. Dosimetry of High Energy Photon Beams Based on Standards of Absorbed Dose in Water, 2001. 66. Determination of operational dose equivalent quantities for neutrons. Jour ICRU, 1(3), 2001. 71. Prescribing, recording, and reporting electron beam therapy. Jour ICRU, 4(1), 2004. 72. Dosimetry of beta rays and low energy photons for brachytherapy with sealed sources. Jour ICRU, 4(2), 2004. Jelly, J. V. Cerenkov Radiation and Its Applications. Pergamon Press, London, 1958. Kleinknecht, K. Detectors for Particle Radiation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1986. Knoll, G. F. Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York, 2001. Kocher, D. C. External dosimetry, in Till, J. E., and Meyer, H. R., eds. Radiological Assessment. NUREG/CR- 3332, U.S. NRC, Washington, DC, 1983. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), Bethesda, MD. (NCRP) Publication No. 23. Measurement of Neutron Flux and Spectra, 1960. 25. Measurement of Absorbed Dose of Neutrons and of Mixtures of Neutrons and Gamma Rays, 1961. 27. Stopping Powers for Use with Cavity Chambers, 1961. 47. Tritium Measurement Technics, 1976. 50. Environmental Radiation Measurements, 1976. 57. Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection, 1978. 58. A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures, 2nd ed., 1985. 69. Dosimetry of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Therapy in the Energy Range 10keV to 50 MeV, 1981. 72. Radiation Protection and Measurement for Low-Voltage Neutron Generators, 1983. 78. Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters in the United States, 1984. 106. Limit for Exposure to Hot Particles on the Skin, 1989. 112. Calibration of Survey Instruments Used in Radiation Protection for the Assessment of Ionizing Radiation Fields and Radioactive Surface Contamination, 1991. 122. Use of Personal Monitors to Estimate Effective Dose to Workers for External Exposure to Low-LET radiation, 1995. 127. Operational Radiation Safety Program, 1998. 144. Radiation Protection for Particle Accelerator Facilities, 2003. Nir-El, Y. Minimum detectable activity in gamma-ray spectrometry—Statistical properties and limits of applicability. Oper Radiat Saf, 80(No. 2): S22–S25, 2001. Paic, G. Ionizing Radiation: Protection and Dosimetry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1988. Poston, J. W., Sr. External dosimetry and personnel monitoring. Health Phys, 88:289–296, 2005. Price, W. S. Nuclear Radiation Detection, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
512 CHAPTER 9 Shapiro, J. Radiation Protection, 4th ed. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 2002. Sharpe, J. Nuclear Radiation Detectors. Methuen, London, 1964. Siegbahn, K., ed. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Ray Spectroscopy, Vol. 1. North Holland, Amsterdam, 1965. Snell, A. H., ed. Nuclear Instruments and Their Uses. Wiley, New York, 1962. Tait, W. H. Radiation Detection. Butterworths, London, 1980. Whyte, G. N. Radiation Dosimetry. Wiley, New York, 1959.
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Page 476 and 477: Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
Page 478 and 479: W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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Page 482 and 483: 467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Page 490 and 491: Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
Page 494 and 495: Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
Page 496 and 497: Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
Page 500 and 501: Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
Page 506 and 507: and is often expressed as a percent
Page 514 and 515: W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
Page 516 and 517: Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
Page 518 and 519: For the data in this example: HEALT
Page 520 and 521: Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
Page 528 and 529: 10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
Page 530 and 531: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
Page 532 and 533: W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
Page 534 and 535: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
Page 538 and 539: Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
Page 540 and 541: Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
Page 542 and 543: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
Page 544 and 545: X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
Page 546 and 547: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
Page 548 and 549: where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
Page 550 and 551: 535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
Page 552 and 553: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
Page 556 and 557: TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
Page 558 and 559: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
Page 560 and 561: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
Page 562 and 563: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
Page 564 and 565: from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
Page 566 and 567: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
Page 568 and 569: Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
Page 570 and 571: EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
Page 572 and 573: The required lead-equivalent leaded
Page 574 and 575: Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 745 Th
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TABLE 14-12. Reflecting Materials N
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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Solution The irradiance at the aper
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Wavelengths (nm) NONIONIZING RADIAT
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n = 300 pulses s × 10 seconds = 30
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% of Peak 100 80 60 40 20 NONIONIZI
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TABLE 14-16. Radar Bands FREQUENCY
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 763 Al
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 765 po
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 767 Gr
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 769 in
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Since there is 1 J/s in a watt, 1.1
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Biological Effects NONIONIZING RADI
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where Td = dry bulb temperature,
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
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Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
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where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
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where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 th
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
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APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
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APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
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Table of the Elements (Continued) A
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APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
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Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
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Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
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APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
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817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
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845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
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APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
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APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
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ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
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TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
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12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
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INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
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Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
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Energy Research and Development Adm
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International Organization for Stan
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n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
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Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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