Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 795 the production of erythema and skin cancer. The use of protective clothing and sunblocking creams is effective in preventing skin damage. Sunglasses that absorb UV light are effective in preventing eye injury. Laser radiation includes radiation in the UV, visible, and infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum; its wavelengths span the range from about 100 nm to about 1 mm. Microwave wavelengths range from about 1 mm to the order of meters, and RF wavelengths range from meters to kilometers. The biological hazards from laser radiation are mainly to the eye and skin. Maximum exposure levels depend on the characteristics of the source (wavelength, pulsed or CW, duty cycle) and exposure time. Exposure limits are specified as radiant exposure, J/cm 2 , or irradiance, W/cm 2 . Lasers are classified according to their power output and thus to their potential hazard. The absorption of energy from RF and microwave radiation can lead to systemic effects due to temperature rise (thermal effects) and due to realignment of molecules and electric fields within the body. Dosimetry is based on the rate per unit mass of energy absorption from the external field. The quantity of dose is called the specific absorption rate (SAR) and is measured in units of watts per kilogram. Because of the extreme difficulty of measuring the SAR in a biologically meaningful way, environmental safety standards are specified in terms of maximum values for the electric and magnetic fields and for the power density. Radiation monitoring instruments are designed to measure these quantities. These derived exposure limits, which are frequency-dependent, are set at levels to ensure that the average whole-body dose does not exceed 0.4 W/kg. Radiation safety measures include minimizing exposure time, maximizing distance from the source, and interposing shielding when necessary. m Problems 14.1. The lethal absorbed dose of 265-nm UV light for E. coli bacteria is 14 MeV. How many photons of this UV radiation does the lethal absorbed dose represent? 14.2. An yttrium–aluminum-garnet (YAG) laser emits near-infrared radiation 1060 nm in wavelength at a power level of 10-W CW. The exit aperture is 3 mm in diameter, and the beam divergence is 5 milliradians. Calculate (a) the 1/e2 diameter at the aperture, (b) the 1/e2 diameter at a distance of 10 m, and (c) the irradiance at a distance of 10 m. 14.3. A 0.1-J ruby laser has an aperture of 7 mm and a beam divergence of 1 milliradian. (a) What is the radiant exposure at distances of 5 and 10 m from the aperture? (b) How far behind the laser aperture is the virtual focal point from where the laser light seems to originate? (c) Is the inverse square law applicable if distances are measured from the virtual focal point of the laser beam?
796 CHAPTER 14 14.4. The output of a CW pumped Nd:YAG laser is Q-switched at a pulse repetition frequency of 10 kHz. If each pulse is 50 nanoseconds wide and if the mean power output is 10 W, calculate (a) the duty cycle, (b) the peak power per pulse, and (c) the energy per pulse. 14.5. What is the recommended MPE value, in mW/cm2 , for direct ocular exposure for 1 second to a beam from a He–Ne laser operating at a power level of 5-mW CW? 14.6. What is the protection standard (i.e., the maximum permissible irradiance for a direct intrabeam exposure) to a 0.8-millisecond-wide pulse from a 694.3-nm ruby laser? 14.7. A pulsed ruby laser, λ = 694.3 nm, is operated in a laboratory at a level of 5 × 10−4 J/pulse, 100-μ second pulse width, and a PRF of 60 pulses/s. The beam exit aperture is 1 mm in diameter, and the beam divergence is 0.1 milliradian. What optical density is required for protective goggles for (a) incidental exposure for as long as 2 seconds and (b) continuous exposure? 14.8. A He–Ne laser, λ = 632.8 mm, is operated at a power level of 3-W CW. The laser aperture diameter is 0.9 mm, and the beam divergence is 0.9 milliradian. If the possibility exists for momentary accidental intrabeam ocular exposure not exceeding 0.25 second, calculate the minimum required optical density of protective goggles for (a) exposure at the laser, (b) exposure at a distance of 100 m, and (c) continuous intrabeam viewing for up to 100 seconds at a distance of 100 m? 14.9. A scanning He–Ne laser that scans at a rate of 10 s−1 emits 5 mW through an aperture of 0.7 cm. If the beam divergence is 5 milliradian, then, for an intrabeamviewing distance of 200 cm, calculate (a) the time during each scan that the pupil of the eye can be exposed, (b) the radiant exposure per scan, (c) the average irradiance at the cornea, and (d) the hazard class that should be assigned to this laser? 14.10. A microwave beam is pulsed 100 times per second, the pulse width is 1 μ second, and the peak power is 1 MW. (a) What is the duty cycle? (b) What is the average power? 14.11. A radar operates at an average power level of 20 W; its pulse width is 1 μ second, and the PRF is 1000 s−1 . Calculate (a) the duty cycle and (b) the peak power.
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics Herm
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To my wife, Sylvia and to the memor
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CONTENTS Preface/ XI 1. Introductio
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Surface Contamination Limits/592 Wa
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PREFACE The practice of radiation s
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INTRODUCTION TO Health Physics
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INTRODUCTION 1 Health physics, radi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES MECHA
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 5 In
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and at v = 0.99 c, m = 9.11 × 10
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 9 Sub
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 11 Th
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 13 co
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 17 (t
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Electrical Current: The Ampere REVI
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Solution REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIP
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 23 Ac
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V a b REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
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Elastic Collision REVIEW OF PHYSICA
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Force Time REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINC
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 31 5
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 33 Fi
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 35 In
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or, in terms of the loss tangent,
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where Impedance t = time after clos
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 45 A
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therefore, Matter Waves REVIEW OF P
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SUMMARY REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPL
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 53 Ac
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 55 2.
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REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 57 2.
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ATOMIC
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Bohr’s Atomic Model ATOMIC AND NU
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 63 2.
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The energy of this photon is E = hc
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 67 are
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 69 ene
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TABLE 3-1. Electronic Structure of
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 73 rad
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 75 spe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 77 whe
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 79 neu
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SUMMARY ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTUR
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ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 83 3.1
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R ADIATION SOURCES RADIOACTIVITY 4
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R ADIATION SOURCES 87 Figure 4-2. T
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R ADIATION SOURCES 89 Figure 4-3. R
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R ADIATION SOURCES 91 Figure 4-4. P
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Figure 4-7. Iodine-131 transformati
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R ADIATION SOURCES 95 Since positro
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R ADIATION SOURCES 97 level of high
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R ADIATION SOURCES 99 From the defi
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R ADIATION SOURCES 101 determined b
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R ADIATION SOURCES 103 sum of the l
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R ADIATION SOURCES 105 of activity
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Solution SA 14 10 226 × 1600 yea
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and the number of radioactive atoms
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W EXAMPLE 4.8 R ADIATION SOURCES 11
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TABLE 4-2. Neptunium Series (4n +1)
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TABLE 4-4. Actinium Series (4n +3)
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R ADIATION SOURCES 117 TABLE 4-6. A
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The integrand can be changed to the
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Figure 4-14. Secular equilibrium: B
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R ADIATION SOURCES 123 of the daugh
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R ADIATION SOURCES 125 By the use o
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Expanding and collecting terms, we
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R ADIATION SOURCES 129 Figure 4-17.
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Deflector Vacuum pump External deam
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Substituting the value of r from Eq
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R ADIATION SOURCES 135 before it is
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R ADIATION SOURCES 137 4.18. What w
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R ADIATION SOURCES 139 4.43. 100-mC
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R ADIATION SOURCES 141 Report No. 1
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTE
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INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH M ATT
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TABLE 5-2. Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
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W EXAMPLE 5.12 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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Classification TABLE 5-6. α, n Neu
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W EXAMPLE 5.14 INTERACTION OF RADIA
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since ln E =−ξ, E 0 E E 0 = e
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where INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH
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UNITS RADIATION DOSIMETRY 6 During
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Solution The radiation absorbed dos
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 207 The relatio
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 209 The use of
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 211 Since one e
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 213 Figure 6-5.
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The radiation absorbed dose rate fr
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 217 Figure 6-6.
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219 TABLE 6-1. Mean Mass Stopping P
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 221 The exposur
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W Example 6.9 RADIATION DOSIMETRY 2
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 225 This calcul
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where ϕ = intensity at depth t, ϕ
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 229 Assuming th
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When we combine the constants in Eq
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Solution RADIATION DOSIMETRY 233 Ph
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 235 In most ins
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 237 first-order
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 239 Integrating
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Medical Internal Radiation Dose Met
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 243 1 Bq/cm 3 o
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W Example 6.16 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
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for 131I listed in the output data
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then the total dose to the target o
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251 TABLE 6-8. Absorbed Fractions (
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 253 which was f
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255 TABLE 6-9. S, Absorbed Dose per
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257 TABLE 6-10. S, Absorbed Dose Pe
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 259 values of S
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 261 S (kidney
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 263 and MIRD Pa
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 265 the 50-year
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TABLE 6-11. Synthetic Tissue Compos
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Solution Dn,p = The dose rate due t
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 271 6.2. An air
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 273 (a) Plot th
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 275 the averag
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RADIATION DOSIMETRY 277 No. 7. Berg
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7 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SA
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BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIATION SAF
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Na + K + BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADI
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TLC VC IC FRC IRV TV RV RV BIOLOGIC
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Capillary knot Vein BIOLOGICAL BASI
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Cell body One nerve cell Axon Nucle
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Aqueous humor Cornea Iris Lens Vitr
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Leucocytes and lymphocytes (x10 −
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TABLE 7-5. Tissue Dose Rate vs. Dis
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Birth Defects (Teratogenesis) BIOLO
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Cancer BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR R ADIAT
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Incidence Incidence General form Do
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 8 Radiation
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 339 radiati
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 341 members
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 343 is a me
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 345 Figure
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 347 by radi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 349 radiati
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Dose Coefficient RADIATION SAFETY G
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 353 appropr
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 355 The cal
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Airborne Radioactivity RADIATION SA
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 359 collisi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 361 is 1 g/
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 365 can be
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 367 total w
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 369 TABLE 8
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compartment after a time t is given
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 373 Now we
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 375 classi
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 377 normal
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 381 whose c
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13 14 12 11 GI Tract 13 T RADIATION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 387 REGION
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 389 The bb
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391 TABLE 8-18. Values of Absorbed
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TABLE 8-19. Summary of Dose Calcula
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TABLE 8-20. Dose Coefficients for S
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 397 nation
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and the total activity in the body
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 401 segment
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 403 where E
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TABLE 8-22. Radioisotopes That Do N
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 407 The sma
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 409 TABLE 8
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 411 Kentuck
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 413 The fra
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 415 ALI = 1
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W Example 8.10 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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W Example 8.12 RADIATION SAFETY GUI
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 421 Substit
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 423 64. Inf
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RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES 425 16. Pro
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION RADI
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Gas-Filled Particle Counters HEALTH
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HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION 431
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TABLE 9-2. Scintillating Materials
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Figure 9-10. Block diagram of a sin
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DOSE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS HEALTH P
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Response Normalized to Cs-137 10 Co
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Survey Meters: Ion Current Chambers
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W Example 9.6 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRU
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NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS HEALTH PHYSICS
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467 TABLE 9-4. Threshold Foil React
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Count rate per unit flux 10 1 .1 .0
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Solution HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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Neutrons TABLE 9-7. Calibration Sou
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Accuracy HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTA
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and is often expressed as a percent
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W Example 9.16 What is the MDA for
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Rearranging Eq. (9.60) and applying
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For the data in this example: HEALT
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Solution X = 1589 7 = 227 (Xi −
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10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY BASIC
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 515 By th
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W Example 10.2 EXTERNAL RADIATION S
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 519 Figur
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Au 198 Ir 192 Cs 137 EXTERNAL RADIA
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Dose buildup factor, B Dose buildup
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 527 layer
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X-Rays EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 52
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 531 recom
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 533
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535 TABLE 10-4. Values for the Para
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 537 a sec
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TABLE 10-6. Commercial Lead Sheets
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 543 The o
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 545 Dist
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 547 by th
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from Eqs. (10.26a) and (10.26b) int
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 551 TABLE
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Transmission 1.0 86 4 2 10 8 6 4 -1
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 555 to 0.
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The required lead-equivalent leaded
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Wpri = primary barrier weekly workl
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where EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 561
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W = workload, Gy/wk, T = occupancy
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 565 Gamm
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where Ni = number of atoms of the i
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 569 which
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 571 is fo
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where C = cost per unit volume of t
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 575 for a
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 577 Calcu
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 579 per
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EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 581 Patte
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11 INTERNAL R ADIATION SAFETY INTER
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 585 Figur
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 589 regar
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591 TABLE 11-3. Protection Factors
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 593 the m
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 595 TABLE
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 597 the U
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 601 effec
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603 TABLE 11-7. Treatment Methods f
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 605 or ba
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Figure 11-5. Gaussian plume dispers
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TABLE 11-10. Pasquill’s Categorie
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 613 is 4
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 615 Equat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 617 In ce
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 619 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 621 Since
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W Example 11.7 INTERNAL RADIATION S
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 625 In th
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 627 (b) A
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 629 a = c
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 631 treat
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 633 activ
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 635 Cohen
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INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY 637 Repor
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CRITICALITY CRITICALITY HAZARD 12 O
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Potential energy E11 E12Em 2r Dista
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Fission Products CRITICALITY 643 Th
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CRITICALITY A2 = 2.35 × 10 15 1.2
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and will cause “fast fission.”
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W Example 12.3 CRITICALITY 649 Calc
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CRITICALITY 651 Making the very rea
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TABLE 12-3. Delayed Neutrons from t
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Power level dt t T τ then T = τ -
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CRITICALITY 657 TABLE 12-5. Activit
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TABLE 12-6. Minimum Critical Mass o
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SUMMARY CRITICALITY 661 a criticali
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CRITICALITY 663 12.10. The blood pl
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CRITICALITY 665 Knief, R. A. Nuclea
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EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEAS
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Evaluation of Radiation Safety Meas
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W EXAMPLE 13.4 Evaluation of Radiat
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W EXAMPLE 13.9 Evaluation of Radiat
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SUMMARY Evaluation of Radiation Saf
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(b) Are the distributions normal or
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 14 Non
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Solution NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFE
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 725 hi
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2.4 mW cm 2 E mW cm 2 = (50 cm)2 (1
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 729 Fi
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 731 Fi
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Figure 14-4. Beam cross sections fo
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% Total Transmission 100 90 80 70 6
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NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 737 TA
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W Example 14.7 NONIONIZING RADIATIO
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Page 792 and 793: where Td = dry bulb temperature,
Page 794 and 795: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 779 to
Page 796 and 797: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 781 th
Page 798 and 799: Dosimetry NONIONIZING RADIATION SAF
Page 800 and 801: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 785 Fi
Page 802 and 803: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 787 TA
Page 804 and 805: where S = power density, W/m 2 , ε
Page 806 and 807: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 791 ME
Page 808 and 809: where A = attenuation, dB, t = shie
Page 812 and 813: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 797 14
Page 814 and 815: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 799 SO
Page 816 and 817: NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY 801 Ha
Page 818 and 819: APPENDIX A Values of Some Useful Co
Page 820 and 821: APPENDIX B Table of the Elements NA
Page 822 and 823: Table of the Elements (Continued) A
Page 824 and 825: APPENDIX C The Reference Person Ove
Page 826 and 827: Chemical Composition APPENDIX C. 81
Page 828 and 829: Duration of Exposure 1. Occupationa
Page 830 and 831: APPENDIX D SPECIFIC ABSORBED FRACTI
Page 832 and 833: 817 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
Page 860 and 861:
845 Target 0.200 0.500 1.000 1.500
Page 862 and 863:
847 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
Page 864 and 865:
849 Energy in (MeV) Target 0.200 0.
Page 866 and 867:
APPENDIX E TOTAL MASS ATTENUATION C
Page 868 and 869:
APPENDIX F MASS ENERGY ABSORPTION C
Page 870 and 871:
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 2.1 0.53 m/s to
Page 872 and 873:
TVL Al 5.3 cm 0.1 MeV Cu 0.6 cm
Page 874 and 875:
12.2 Nuclide Bq/L pCi/mL 24 Na 1200
Page 876 and 877:
INDEX Page numbers followed by “t
Page 878 and 879:
Catecholamines, 303 Cavity ionizati
Page 880 and 881:
Energy Research and Development Adm
Page 882 and 883:
International Organization for Stan
Page 884 and 885:
n-p junction, 445 Nuclear bombings
Page 886 and 887:
Radium injections, 324 Radon daught
Page 888:
Type 2, or non-insulin-dependent di
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Introduction to Health Physics: Fourth Edition - Ruang Baca FMIPA UB

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