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sampling standard is well designed (Bowker & Pearson, 2002; Pérez-Paredes, 2003). 19 Indeed, many studies have produced successful and convincing results by using relatively small, highly specialized corpora (Beaugrande, 2001; Ghadessy, Henry, & Roseberry, 2001; Coniam, 2004). Simpson (2000), for instance, uses a one-million-word corpus of spoken academic English compiled from four 250,000-word sub-corpora respectively. The Hong Kong Corpus of Conversation English (HKCCE) compiled by Cheng and Warren (1999) stands at 500,000 tokens. Gavioli (2002) works with an English medical corpus of 258,622 tokens compiled from five specialist sub-domains of similar size, while the U.S. accounting corpus compiled by Nishina (2007b) is even smaller, standing at 245,424 words. All of these researchers attempted to extract keywords, collocations, patterns or fixed expressions peculiar to texts in a specific genre or/and discipline, and all were successful in achieving this aim. However, Biber et al. (1998) have argued that not only the size, but also the number and range of texts are primary factors for assessing the representativeness of a corpus. According to Engwall (1994, p. 51), no scientific criteria exist for determining the size of any corpus. It has to be decided simply with reference to a balance of depth and breath, but the lack of resources sometimes restricts the desired design. Biber (1993b) however suggests that around 60 texts are sufficient for retrieving reliable linguistic characteristics concerning high frequency items, and 1,190 texts are needed when analysing low frequency items. Calculating the number of words using words in one text standard, this would equate to 2,380,000 running words (cf. Saito, Nakamura, & Akano, 2005, p. 68). 20 Thus, this corpus size is adopted as the standard in the current study by also considering a number of sub-disciplines and their size. Due to the reason that each full text in an article is extracted for my corpora, however, 2000 words in one text standard is not applied for the design of my corpora. 5.2.2. Corpus design The first step in the current study was to compile discipline-specific corpora of applied linguistics and business studies: my corpora represent the genre of RAs in these two academic disciplines based on uniform standards in terms of their total size, and in terms of the number 19 Bowker and Pearson (2002, p. 48) comment on the corpus size for a specific purpose Pérez-Paredes (2003) supports this stance that the small corpora need not to be as large as the general reference corpus if the corpus design is well considered. 20 The standard 2000 words in one text is, for example, adopted in the corpus design of LOB, BROWN, FLOB and FROWN. 58
of sub-disciplines contained within them. Each sub-discipline and its leading journal are selected based on a relatively broad cross-section of research specializations within each academic discipline. It is however difficult and perhaps impossible to specify all possible sub-disciplines of the two disciplines, and it is practically impossible to collect and include such all data for an individual research project like the current study. According to the Council for International Exchange of Scholars (CIES) website, 21 there are 24 sub-disciplinary variants for applied linguistics, 55 for business administration, 15 for economics, and 35 for law (including business law) and so on. For this reason, I decided to simply select the same numbers of sub-disciplines (i.e. each 8 sub-disciplinary variants) from these variants of the two disciplines and to include the data from the journals being representative of these sub-disciplines in my corpora. Sub-disciplines and their journals included within applied linguistics are 1) testing (Language Testing), 2) the analysis of speech (Language and Speech), 3) language learning (Language Learning), 4) English for specific purposes (Journal of English for Specific Purposes), 5) corpus linguistics (International Journal of Corpus Linguistics), 6) cognitive processes (Language and Cognitive Processes), 7) second language acquisition (Studies in Second Language Acquisition), and 8) teaching English as a foreign language (TESOL Quarterly). Those included within business studies are 1) accounting (Journal of Accounting Research), 2) business law (American Business Law Journal), 3) society (Business and Society), 4) economics (Quarterly Journal of Business and Economics), 5) finance (Journal of Business Finance and Accounting), 6) business strategy (Journal of Business Strategy), 7) marketing (Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing), and 8) management (Journal of (Small) Business and Management). Articles were selected at random from those published after 2000, thereby representing current topics, questions and issues in each field. In particular, I attempted to extract data from data-based RAs, which is one of four genres of RAs suggested in Swales (2004, p. 213) (viz. Swales divides RAs into Theory Pieces, Review Articles, Data-based RAs and Short Communications), since they are popular in both disciplines. These journals were selected because they are all internationally renowned and cover a wide range of topics in the field of applied linguistics and business studies. 22 RAs in each of these journals are subject to a strict and rigorous peer review process before being published. 21 The website of CIES is at http://www.cies.org/specialists/Joining_The_Roster/Sub_Discipline.htm. 22 The decision to limit the number of journals in each corpus to only eight was due to practical purposes; it does not mean that other journals are less prestigious than those selected in the current study. 59
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Evaluative Meanings and Disciplinar
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ABSTRACT The purpose of this study
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CONTENTS C H APT E R 1. Introductio
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C H APT E R 9. The second theme: Re
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Figure A-1 Histogram for tokens of
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Table 8.15 The SKILFULNESS group in
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CHAPTER 1. Introduction 1.1. Genera
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study are still not large enough fo
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RQ1) Is it valuable to apply a new
Page 19 and 20: in the way each of these evaluative
Page 21 and 22: disciplines feature different bodie
Page 23 and 24: White and Liccardi (2006) have show
Page 25 and 26: However, it was not possible to cla
Page 27 and 28: typically presented as impersonal a
Page 29 and 30: 2.5. Applied linguistics and busine
Page 31 and 32: 2.6.2. Business studies Business co
Page 33 and 34: Swales (2004) thus offers a rather
Page 35 and 36: genre has come increasingly under t
Page 37 and 38: CHAPTER 3. Pattern, meaning and eva
Page 39 and 40: 170). 7 On the basis of the vast am
Page 41 and 42: 3.3. Lexico-grammatical patterns 3.
Page 43 and 44: syntactic patterns encodes differen
Page 45 and 46: RESULT/DATA based on DATA/THEORY In
Page 47 and 48: (Biber, 1988, p. 237). Indeed, Chaf
Page 49 and 50: aspect of language use. For these r
Page 51 and 52: 1986), hedging (Holmes, 1988; Hylan
Page 53 and 54: adverbs but rather in certain patte
Page 55 and 56: average work is described as sound
Page 57 and 58: are also interrelated. In an attemp
Page 59 and 60: CHAPTER 4. Correspondence analysis
Page 61 and 62: - end. Although there is no doubt t
Page 63 and 64: appeal of multivariate analysis is
Page 65 and 66: While such observations might be in
Page 67 and 68: The contingency table has the follo
Page 69: CHAPTER 5. Corpus creation and meth
Page 73 and 74: As Figure 5.1 illustrates, regardle
Page 75 and 76: corpus-based discourse analysis. Th
Page 77 and 78: analysis was conducted with the mat
Page 79 and 80: 5.3.4. Discourse analysis procedure
Page 81 and 82: CHAPTER 6. A case study In this cha
Page 83 and 84: express human feelings: specificall
Page 85 and 86: contingency table consists of 66 ro
Page 87 and 88: of this case study is limited. Howe
Page 89 and 90: likely to express what they feel ab
Page 91 and 92: 6.2.2. The NERVOUSNESS group While
Page 93 and 94: adjectives in this group in the pat
Page 95 and 96: While the LSP enthusiastic about N
Page 97 and 98: AWARE and IGNORANT group in Francis
Page 99 and 100: CHAPTER 7. Data analyses 7.1. Intro
Page 101 and 102: The table is divided into high-freq
Page 103 and 104: about of Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. B
Page 105 and 106: Tables 7.2 and 7.3 above indicate t
Page 107 and 108: same for a corpus of a more special
Page 109 and 110: Table 7.5 above indicates that simi
Page 111 and 112: about for from in of on to with 8 l
Page 113 and 114: In the plot shown in Figure 7.1, it
Page 115 and 116: Figure 7.4. Adjective plot in the s
Page 117 and 118: Figure 7.7. Adjective plot for A DJ
Page 119 and 120: Figure 7.9. Adjective plot for the
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Figure 7.11. Adjective plot for the
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Figure 7.13. Adjective plot for the
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same time. This being the case, I h
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Other adjectives in this quadrant a
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This concludes my analysis of the e
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Figure 7.21 also indicates that adj
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With the sole exception of the patt
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evaluation (Martin & Rose, 2007, p.
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judgments tend to draw on both emot
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[Business studies: neutral about/on
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modals in BC, on the other hand, mo
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Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. 1 more 14
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itself. 8.1.3. Importance The third
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Fewer of the control variables are
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someone/something is certain or unc
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current/past oriented. While the nu
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monogloss heterogloss ALC 35%(7) 65
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that the default assumption among a
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monogloss heterogloss ALC 29%(4) 71
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general category of appreciation as
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while the BC examples evaluate the
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it seems that researchers in busine
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Overall, my findings suggest that a
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interpretation. Finally, these sema
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entities. This group is especially
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[Applied Linguistics] [
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The proportions for this group are
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In addition, this LSP strongly occu
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or evidence in the writers (ongoing
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Francis et al. (1998, p. 479) indic
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In summary, the intensity of severa
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The depended- entities in ALC are p
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order ALC freq. BC freq. 1 differen
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[Business Studies] Thi
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[Applied Linguistics] Scores (but
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In general, business studies discou
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Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. 1 involved
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[Applied Linguistics]
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[Business Studies] Language is
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something (e.g. ability, knowledge,
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[Business Studies] Only companies
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adverbs. Table 9.18 below summarize
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Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. 1 responsi
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Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. 1 present
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ALC BC Negative Noun inherent other
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In each of the above concordances t
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Several adjectives in this group in
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[Business Studies] Our sample is r
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Order ALC Freq. BC Freq. 1 study 27
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[Business studies: model + based on
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particular thing in order to deepen
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across the two disciplines. However
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A DJ PR EP N. Figure 10.1. Discipli
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likely to occur in applied linguist
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10.3.2. Cause vs. Effect As argued
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and unostentatious fashion. This fi
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10.4. Conclusion The fundamental as
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as follows: [A new methodology] RQ1
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linguistics and business studies on
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disciplinary culture of the two dis
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p. 156). By investigating a corpus,
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Figure A-3: Histogram for types of
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Appendix B: Tables for adjectives i
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vague 1 worried 1 1 2 1 2 1 wrong 1
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indispensable 1 1 ineligible 2 1 in
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indistinguishable 8 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 i
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immersed 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 implicated 4
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Table B-10. Contingency table for t
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12 conditional 3 clear 5 26 good 1
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51 free 17 unique 18 141 antagonist
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comparable 21 2 8 3 1 2 3 11 3 4 7
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new 2 12 1 11 2 5 4 8 3 2 9 3 45 ne
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27 comparable 4 competitive 3 68 si
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pregnant 1 preoccupied 2 1 1 replet
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crucial-as 1 effecti
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puzzled-by 1 recogni
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SRHE/Open University Press Bell, R.
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articles in biology and history. In
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Herbert, A. (1965). The structure o
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Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the
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Rundell, M. (Ed.). (2007). Macmilla
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functional perspective. English for
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