AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIAN STUDENT ...

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Iranian government also allotted 100 government scholarships for students to study in Europe. Many of these students became involved in the Iranian bureaucracy and were reform-minded. 17 Both Pahlavi shahs expanded educational opportunities in Iran. The University of Tehran became the nation’s first university in 1935, and by 1977-78 there were 21 state-run universities. However, even as the Iranian university system expanded, it could not keep pace with the number of high school graduates. In the 1961-62 academic year, 36.3 percent of students who passed their final high school examinations, which was similar to the French baccalaureate, were able to attend Iranian universities. By 1975-76, that percentage had dwindled to 14 percent. Between 1965 and 1975 the number of high school graduates exploded, yet there were only two new universities founded. 18 This led to a lack of opportunities for educated Iranians. M. Sukru Hanioglu’s study of the Young Turks emphasizes “the government’s failure to provide jobs for those returning from Europe after successfully receiving education and training there.” 19 A similar experience was repeated in Iran in the 1960s and 1970s. A lack of opportunity led many Iranians to stay abroad, thus creating the brain drain phenomenon. Iranians who studied abroad and returned home were often faced with unemployment, which led to the alienation of a sizable portion of the intelligentsia. Education was also cheapened during the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah. Under the reign of Reza Shah, almost any high school graduate could go to a university or get a job in the bureaucracy. However, employment was not guaranteed to college graduates under Mohammad Reza Shah. This was partly because the establishment of new universities could not keep up with the amount of high school graduates, but foreign education had a lot to do with it as well. Historian Roy Mottahedeh noted that “in Iran, the degree – domestic or foreign – made the 17 Cleveland and Bunton, A History of the Modern Middle East, 118. 18 Mottahedeh, The Mantle and the Prophet, 64-8, 316-8. 19 Hanioglu, The Young Turks in Opposition, 14. 8
man.” 20 More and more Iranians had doctorates, and many of them were from “wonderfully obscure American Universities.” 21 As Nikkie Keddie noted, the growing intelligentsia, whether they were educated in Iran or abroad, “had little outlet for their talents.” 22 The ever-expanding Iranian intelligentsia combined with the increase of Iranian students abroad, a lack of bureaucratic employment home, and the brutal rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to create a vocal dissident movement abroad by the 1960s. The Iranian student movement became an integral component of Western student movements, and their activities became a policy issue for the United States. The outbreak of the Cold War changed the dynamics of Iran’s foreign education, and by the early 1960s the United States became the primary destination for Iranian students seeking education abroad. Throughout the 1950s, the American government sought to win the hearts and minds of foreign students and workers through a series of propaganda programs, including student exchange. Iran was a focal point of these programs because of its geostrategic and economic value. Students came to the United States in four possible ways. Some exchange programs were sponsored by the U.S. government while others were funded by philanthropic American organizations. While scholarships were issued by the Iranian government as well, the majority of Iranian students came to the United States through their own means and were supported by their families in Iran. Iranian students who came to the United States from the mid- 1950s until the outbreak of the Iranian Revolution are referred to as the “first wave” of Iranian student migration. 23 20 Mottahedeh, The Mantle and the Prophet, 317. 21 Mottahedeh, The Mantle and the Prophet, 318. 22 Keddie, Roots and Results of Revolution, 119. 23 Shirin Hakimzadeh and David Dixon, “Spotlight on the Iranian Foreign Born,” Migration Information Source (Washington: Migration Policy Institute, 2008), http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/display.cfmid=404 (accessed on 14 July 2008). The second wave refers to Iranian immigration to the United States after the Iranian Revolution. The second wave consisted mainly of exiles, political refugees, and asylum seekers. Also refer to Mitra 9
Page 1 and 2: AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIA
Page 3 and 4: ABSTRACT The Iranian student moveme
Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many peop
Page 7 and 8: DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated
Page 9 and 10: CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION AND HISTOR
Page 11 and 12: a blank check to purchase any non-n
Page 13 and 14: and collective confrontation of ill
Page 15: The Iranian intelligentsia that bec
Page 19 and 20: developments took place during the
Page 21 and 22: 7,610 students. 39 James Bill ackno
Page 23 and 24: the potential to provide an alterna
Page 25 and 26: ole that the United States was assu
Page 27 and 28: and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ret
Page 29 and 30: Mosaddeq was soft on communism, res
Page 31 and 32: decade. Inequality, imperialism, co
Page 33 and 34: Iranian Students.” 77 Fereydoun H
Page 35 and 36: visit he made from the early 1960s
Page 37 and 38: Iranian general recalled that when
Page 39 and 40: epresented a wide variety of politi
Page 41 and 42: Iranian student protests in the ear
Page 43 and 44: government. 114 Information from th
Page 45 and 46: “Their message was clear: Don’t
Page 47 and 48: on six issues. Land reform was one
Page 49 and 50: Roosevelt of California. 143 Faribo
Page 51 and 52: a group of picketing Iranian studen
Page 53 and 54: progressive-mindedness that charact
Page 55 and 56: embarrassing to the United States G
Page 57 and 58: Throughout Kennedy’s presidency,
Page 59 and 60: of an impossible leader - - by enli
Page 61 and 62: The shah saw Iranian students abroa
Page 63 and 64: people. Show the Shah that you cond
Page 65 and 66: warned the Iranian students that th
Page 67 and 68:
Iranian students under warning from
Page 69 and 70:
people whether they were themselves
Page 71 and 72:
unprecedented, with the exception o
Page 73 and 74:
ecause they were active members and
Page 75 and 76:
youth organizations such as the Fre
Page 77 and 78:
approchement with the Soviet Union
Page 79 and 80:
Iranian students in the United Stat
Page 81 and 82:
condemnation of American imperialis
Page 83 and 84:
quarterly publication of the ISAUS,
Page 85 and 86:
States. When Bunting asked if the g
Page 87 and 88:
the police used four water cannons
Page 89 and 90:
With the trip postponed, the briefi
Page 91 and 92:
diplomats in Tehran noted that they
Page 93 and 94:
the modernization of education thre
Page 95 and 96:
The shah made his last visit to the
Page 97 and 98:
intimately involved in the U.S. cou
Page 99 and 100:
CHAPTER IV - THE RADICALIZATION OF
Page 101 and 102:
and networking with western student
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Marxists had taken place.” 393 Fo
Page 105 and 106:
Demonstrations occurred in Iran tha
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agents in the Iranian Embassy in Wa
Page 109 and 110:
student movement abroad was by far
Page 111 and 112:
The group ended up receiving cots f
Page 113 and 114:
were the result of high unemploymen
Page 115 and 116:
egan to give the wrong people hairc
Page 117 and 118:
opportunities for the CIS and well-
Page 119 and 120:
with a group of Iranian students fr
Page 121 and 122:
same day the lavish ceremonies were
Page 123 and 124:
For the rest of the shah’s rule,
Page 125 and 126:
question the nature of American inv
Page 127 and 128:
over.” 499 As a result of a possi
Page 129 and 130:
Even though Jimmy Carter used human
Page 131 and 132:
augury stretched far beyond that on
Page 133 and 134:
percent were inspired by communism.
Page 135 and 136:
etaliatory response to the hostages
Page 137 and 138:
did not desire the establishment of
Page 139 and 140:
further radicalized the opposition.
Page 141 and 142:
Douglas, William O. The Court Years
Page 143 and 144:
Sick, Gary. All Fall Down: America
Page 145 and 146:
Demonstrate: Tuesday, Sept. 1st, 4:
Page 147 and 148:
SECONDARY SOURCES Abrahamian, Ervan
Page 149 and 150:
Dixon, David and Shirin Hakimzadeh.
Page 151 and 152:
Heineman, Kenneth J. Campus Wars: T
Page 153 and 154:
McAlister, Melani. Epic Encounters:
Page 155 and 156:
Von Dirke, Sabine. “All Power to
Page 157 and 158:
(above) Figure 3. Ali Mohammad Fate
Page 159 and 160:
(above) Figure 8. Heading of demons
Page 161 and 162:
(above) Figure 12. Masked Iranian s
Page 163 and 164:
(below) Figure16. Front page of ISA
Page 165:
(left) Figure 19. The battle lines
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AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIAN STUDENT ...

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