AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIAN STUDENT ...

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shah massive amounts of military equipment. Iran was approved for $100 million of military credit sales in June 1968, because Secretary of State Dean Rusk, along with others in the administration, emphasized that the United States needed to bolster Iran’s defense capabilities in response to the upcoming British departure from the region. 352 By 1968 this policy was underway, and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia and the Shah of Iran were now the “Brotherly Hands” of the Persian Gulf. 353 While Johnson believed that the shah was a progressive leader who could bring stability to the region, and the administration began large-scale military sales to Iran, Iranian students at home and abroad continued to oppose his regime. During May and June 1967 and January and February 1968, protests broke out in eight of Iran’s institutions of higher education because of complaints about the educational system. Along with simply upgrading the quality of education, their demands included the abolition of newly instituted tuition fees, upgrading of degrees, larger university budgets, and better facilities. Even though these demands were apolitical, the security and police over-reacted and made many arrests. 354 Just as reform in the university system was demanded by French and American students during the unrest of 1968, the shah launched a reform program in the wake of the demonstrations. The shah initiated this reform at the Ramsar Conference for Educational Revolution from 6 August – 8 August 1968. 355 However, he encountered difficulties. The problem of modernization in the universities was indicative of the overall problems that Iran faced by the 1970s. While conservative and religious students found 352 Memorandum From the President’s Special Assistant (Rostow) to President Johnson, “Arms Agreement with the Shah,” 12 June 1968, FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXII, 528; Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Iran, “Shah’s Visit to US,” 13 June 1968, FRUS 1964-1968, Vol. XXII, 529. 353 “What are the Brotherly Hands up to” The Economist, 23 November 1968 in CIS, Documents on the Pahlavi Reign of Terror in Iran, 165-6. 354 Helms to Kissinger, “Student Unrest Abroad” 2 September 1970, FRUS 1969-1976, Vol. E-4, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ (accessed on 26 February 2008). 355 Text of Ramsar Conference, Ali Pasha Saleh, Cultural Ties Between Iran and the United States (Tehran: Sherkate- Chapkhaneh Bistopanj-e-Shahrivar, 1976), 355-72. 84
the modernization of education threatening, more liberal students and professors believed that the change did not come fast enough. Therefore, the implementation and progress of these reforms were slow, and in many instances they did not happen at all. 356 The outbreak of serious protest in Iran for the first time in five years indicated that student unrest in 1968 was truly a global phenomenon. Protests by Iranian students were prevalent in Austria. The American embassy in Vienna reported that protest had “become almost a ritual with Iranian students in Austria.” 357 There were between 700 and 900 Iranian students in Austria in 1968, with the most active in Graz. Many were considered to be “career students” and were close to being “professional expatriates from Iran.” 358 Between 150 and 200 students demonstrated the shah’s arrival in Vienna for a medical exam on 10 February 1968. The protesters were mostly Iranians, but they were joined by European leftist students. The Iranian and European students protested the extravagance of the shah’s recent coronation ceremony while Iranian citizens starved, and were also appalled by the torture and execution of political prisoners, lack of freedom, and economic problems. The protest aimed at spreading knowledge of the shah’s brutal regime and to get the Austrians and the rest of the world to understand their cause. 359 With the growth of Iranian student protest occurring in Western Europe as well as the United States, the shah began to realize that student dissent was a widespread phenomenon. In the middle of March 1968, the shah told Armin Meyer that he believed Iranian student protesters 356 Helms to Kissinger, “Student Unrest Abroad” 2 September 1970, FRUS 1969-1976, Vol. E-4, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ (accessed on 26 February 2008). 357 Airgram from American Embassy in Vienna to the Department of State, “Anti-Shah Demonstration by Iranian Students,” 16 February 1968, General Records of the Department of State, Central Foreign Policy Files 1967-1969, Box 2216, Folder POL 7 IR<strong>AN</strong> (1/1/68), RG 59, NA. 358 AE Vienna to DOS, “Anti-Shah Demonstration by Iranian Students,” 16 February 1968, RG 59, NA. 359 AE Vienna to DOS, “Anti-Shah Demonstration by Iranian Students,” 16 February 1968, RG 59, NA. 85
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AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIA
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ABSTRACT The Iranian student moveme
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many peop
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DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated
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CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION AND HISTOR
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a blank check to purchase any non-n
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and collective confrontation of ill
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The Iranian intelligentsia that bec
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man.” 20 More and more Iranians h
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developments took place during the
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7,610 students. 39 James Bill ackno
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the potential to provide an alterna
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ole that the United States was assu
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and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ret
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Mosaddeq was soft on communism, res
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decade. Inequality, imperialism, co
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Iranian Students.” 77 Fereydoun H
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visit he made from the early 1960s
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Iranian general recalled that when
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epresented a wide variety of politi
Page 41 and 42: Iranian student protests in the ear
Page 43 and 44: government. 114 Information from th
Page 45 and 46: “Their message was clear: Don’t
Page 47 and 48: on six issues. Land reform was one
Page 49 and 50: Roosevelt of California. 143 Faribo
Page 51 and 52: a group of picketing Iranian studen
Page 53 and 54: progressive-mindedness that charact
Page 55 and 56: embarrassing to the United States G
Page 57 and 58: Throughout Kennedy’s presidency,
Page 59 and 60: of an impossible leader - - by enli
Page 61 and 62: The shah saw Iranian students abroa
Page 63 and 64: people. Show the Shah that you cond
Page 65 and 66: warned the Iranian students that th
Page 67 and 68: Iranian students under warning from
Page 69 and 70: people whether they were themselves
Page 71 and 72: unprecedented, with the exception o
Page 73 and 74: ecause they were active members and
Page 75 and 76: youth organizations such as the Fre
Page 77 and 78: approchement with the Soviet Union
Page 79 and 80: Iranian students in the United Stat
Page 81 and 82: condemnation of American imperialis
Page 83 and 84: quarterly publication of the ISAUS,
Page 85 and 86: States. When Bunting asked if the g
Page 87 and 88: the police used four water cannons
Page 89 and 90: With the trip postponed, the briefi
Page 91: diplomats in Tehran noted that they
Page 95 and 96: The shah made his last visit to the
Page 97 and 98: intimately involved in the U.S. cou
Page 99 and 100: CHAPTER IV - THE RADICALIZATION OF
Page 101 and 102: and networking with western student
Page 103 and 104: Marxists had taken place.” 393 Fo
Page 105 and 106: Demonstrations occurred in Iran tha
Page 107 and 108: agents in the Iranian Embassy in Wa
Page 109 and 110: student movement abroad was by far
Page 111 and 112: The group ended up receiving cots f
Page 113 and 114: were the result of high unemploymen
Page 115 and 116: egan to give the wrong people hairc
Page 117 and 118: opportunities for the CIS and well-
Page 119 and 120: with a group of Iranian students fr
Page 121 and 122: same day the lavish ceremonies were
Page 123 and 124: For the rest of the shah’s rule,
Page 125 and 126: question the nature of American inv
Page 127 and 128: over.” 499 As a result of a possi
Page 129 and 130: Even though Jimmy Carter used human
Page 131 and 132: augury stretched far beyond that on
Page 133 and 134: percent were inspired by communism.
Page 135 and 136: etaliatory response to the hostages
Page 137 and 138: did not desire the establishment of
Page 139 and 140: further radicalized the opposition.
Page 141 and 142: Douglas, William O. The Court Years
Page 143 and 144:
Sick, Gary. All Fall Down: America
Page 145 and 146:
Demonstrate: Tuesday, Sept. 1st, 4:
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SECONDARY SOURCES Abrahamian, Ervan
Page 149 and 150:
Dixon, David and Shirin Hakimzadeh.
Page 151 and 152:
Heineman, Kenneth J. Campus Wars: T
Page 153 and 154:
McAlister, Melani. Epic Encounters:
Page 155 and 156:
Von Dirke, Sabine. “All Power to
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(above) Figure 3. Ali Mohammad Fate
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(above) Figure 8. Heading of demons
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(above) Figure 12. Masked Iranian s
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(below) Figure16. Front page of ISA
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(left) Figure 19. The battle lines
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AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIAN STUDENT ...

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