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• Soil characteristics: Frozen soil provides excellent bearing for a structure. When soil, usually fine-grained, thaws, it turns into slurry with little strength. This can lead to large movement, and the structure might fail. Foundations Johnston (1965) presented four approaches for foundation design in a permafrost environment. The results of site investigation will indicate the design approach and the construction technique to be used. • Conventional design and construction methods - I: Permafrost conditions can be neglected when the site is well-drained granular soils or solid rock, because they contain little or no ice. • Conventional design and construction methods – II: If it is not possible to preserve the frozen conditions, two approaches are possible: in areas where ground temperatures are close to 0ºC (32ºF), thaw and then consolidate the soil prior to construction, or remove the soil and replace it with compacted, well drained, nonfrost-susceptible material. • Pile foundations: Pile foundations in drilled holes to 4.6 to 9 m (15 to 30 ft.) depth could be used when the permafrost conditions can be preserved and thus could be used to support a structure. Ventilation or insulation can be used to preserve permafrost. Ventilation is commonly used with heated buildings. The structure is raised above the ground surface to permit air circulation beneath to minimize or prevent heat flow to the ground. • Flexible foundations: In areas with anticipated settlement, flexible foundations can be used, which can be adjusted to eliminate structural deformation as differential settlement occurs. To ensure stability of the structure, special settlement joints could be incorporated, which permit individual sections of the building to move without causing deformations in adjacent sections. Screw Piles Foundation, Permafrost, Alaska Johnston et al. (1999) discussed the versatility and effectiveness of screw piling for building foundations in soils with inadequate bearing capacities for conventional concrete footings. Screw pile foundations are effective for supporting construction on low-bearing capacity materials, such as the peat and saturated marine silt deposit soil in Juneau, Alaska, that has inadequate bearing capacities. The screw piling foundation method involves the use of a power head and pile driver to penetrate the permafrost active layer and insert bearings in the inactive layer. The screw piles consist of a plate or plates, formed into the shape of a helix or screw thread attached to a central shaft. Advantages of the screw piling method include the absence of impact and vibrations that may be harmful to adjacent buildings, as compared to driving wood or steel piles into the soil. Screw pilings are also quickly and easily installed at a lower cost than traditional methods. PERD-079: Task 2 - <strong>Literature</strong> <strong>Review</strong> 36
Foundation construction in the permafrost regions in the arctic and antarctic are described later in this section. Other relevant Canadian building digests include the following. • CBD-26 describes the physical processes involved in ground freezing and frost heaving (Penner, 1962). • CBD-61 describes methods to avoid or alleviate problems resulting from differential heaving of freezing ground (Brown, 1965). • CBD-81, with emphasis on large buildings, presents a selection of the type foundations best suited for a particular site (Legget and Crawford, 1966). • CBD-128 deals with the mechanism of frost heave and adfreezing of foundations (Penner and Burn, 1970). • CBD-182 explains causes of frost action and its construction problems, and presents solutions to control frost action (Burn, 1976). North Series # 4 (CMHC 2001-2003) explains how to choose a foundation system, which could withstand northern climate conditions. North Series # 4 discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and anticipated life span and life-cycle costs of various foundation options. Decision flow diagrams are provided for selection of the appropriate type of foundation depending on soil conditions and availability of appropriate equipment and skilled labour. Foundation systems discussed include the surface foundation, pile foundation, rigid foundation, shallow foundation, and basement systems. • Surface foundation systems: These systems are intended for home constructions that could tolerate a reasonable degree of movement. They are particularly attractive for ice-rich permafrost where more permanent foundation systems are not feasible. The foundation is elevated above the ground, about 0.7 to 1 m (28 to 39 in.) to ensure any heat from the building does not thaw the ground and also to minimize snow drifting. In addition to the slab insulation, the permafrost might be further protected using a heat pump with an in-ground heat exchanger (ground-source heat pump). Surface foundation systems include a timber pad and wedges, timber pad and screw jacks, pad and post, insulated slab on grade, and timber sills systems, which can be constructed on site. Pads and posts are generally constructed of pressure-treated timber but could be made from a combination of timber, concrete, and steel. They also require periodic leveling to adjust to differential settlement and heave. • Pile foundation systems: These systems include driven piles, sand slurry or adfreeze piles, modified sand slurry piles, grouted piles, and end-bearing piles. Timber and steel are most commonly used in pilings. Steel piles perform well in frozen ground. Timber, if not pressure treated, might experience decay. • Rigid foundation systems: In these systems, the structure and the foundation act as a single unit. The structure is allowed to tilt rather than deform, which results in less PERD-079: Task 2 - <strong>Literature</strong> <strong>Review</strong> 37
Page 1 and 2: http://irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca Task 2: <
Page 3 and 4: DISCLAIMER This report presents a r
Page 5 and 6: 3. Heating, Ventilation, and Energy
Page 7 and 8: List of Acronyms ach Air changes pe
Page 9 and 10: Executive Summary Canada’s region
Page 11 and 12: to 24 in.) in areas below the tree
Page 13 and 14: 1. Introduction Background Canada
Page 15 and 16: Moisture Issues: Wood Frame Constru
Page 17 and 18: of Alaska museum where RH was 45%.
Page 19 and 20: Let Z w is warm side vapour resista
Page 21 and 22: c) Proposed Wall # 2 b) Proposed Wa
Page 23 and 24: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corpora
Page 25 and 26: Upgraded Thermal & Air Tightness Wa
Page 27 and 28: Single Stud Walls with Interior Str
Page 29 and 30: Standoff wall system Source: CHBA (
Page 31 and 32: • polyethylene air/vapour barrier
Page 33 and 34: Building Envelopes: Northern Canada
Page 35 and 36: • Climate: The Arctic climate in
Page 37 and 38: • Plumbing system: To solve conde
Page 39 and 40: • The SIP house required 264 hour
Page 41 and 42: • The attached sunspace did not p
Page 43 and 44: this case, a means of venting the r
Page 45 and 46: • High energy and transportation
Page 47: as well as at high altitudes, where
Page 51 and 52: oof assemblies, because the roof de
Page 53 and 54: • The roofing membrane, air/vapou
Page 55 and 56: • the coasts and islands with the
Page 57 and 58: Maritime Climate Indigenous Archite
Page 59 and 60: example, in cold climates, the comf
Page 61 and 62: Globally, domes constructed with ai
Page 63 and 64: time limitations existed for the bu
Page 65 and 66: Pier Foundation System Brooks (2000
Page 67 and 68: Kwok et al. (1992, 1993) also used
Page 69 and 70: Composite-Wrapped Concrete Column K
Page 71 and 72: consumption and CO 2 emissions asso
Page 73 and 74: healthy, sustainable, durable, and
Page 75 and 76: Triple-glazed windows (about RSI-0.
Page 77 and 78: The building envelope is airtight a
Page 79 and 80: Maximum annual heating requirement
Page 81 and 82: Energy Performance During the first
Page 83 and 84: Roof framing Roof insulation Air ti
Page 85 and 86: Table 8 compares R-values and air t
Page 87 and 88: in.) diameter, it appears quite whi
Page 89 and 90: • an equivalent thermal transmitt
Page 91 and 92: 3. Heating, Ventilation, and Energy
Page 93 and 94: Locations that Work Well For buildi
Page 95 and 96: District Heating Considerations Arm
Page 97 and 98: • Particulates: the measured leve
Page 99 and 100:
4. Socio-Economic Issues The Vegeta
Page 101 and 102:
concentrated in a few integrated sp
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Snow drifting patterns, winds, temp
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Thermally Upgraded Wall Systems Thi
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Coastal Northern Regions For high-m
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Appendix A: Literature</str
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References Note: Unless otherwise i
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———. 1994-1. “Designing Hou
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Diakun, D. 1997. “Portfolio: Nort
Page 117 and 118:
Legget, R.F. and C.B. Crawford. 196
Page 119 and 120:
, then select “Volume 2, 1999-200
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