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esearch activities at UAS should contribute to the maintenance and development of theprofessional practice in society (Weert and Boezerooy, 2007: 31).The issue of applied research at UAS can be considered one of the bottlenecks of the Dutchhigher education system, as the proportion of innovative enterprises that co-operate with highereducation institutions and with research institutes is relatively low in the Netherlandsas compared with other EU15 countries (OECD, 2008a: 70). Moreover, UAS are not eligible forbasic government research funding (Weert and Boezerooy, 2007: 31). Instead several regulationshave been established, such as the RAAK-regulation which offers financial support to initiateresearch projects in the field of development and knowledge (see § 2.6). In order to stimulateHBOs to conduct more practice-based research and improve innovative strength of theseinstitutes, lectoraten were introduced. There are currently almost 400 lectors working at UAS(HBO-raad, 2008b). The job specification of a lector is to transfer knowledge to industry (SMEs)and society in general and to develop applications of knowledge on demand. They are knowledgeexperts in their field and are specialists in the application of knowledge in professional contextswithin companies and organizations (Jonge and Berger, 2006: 12-13). Initially the lectoratenwere partly financed from subsidies made available by the Foundation Knowledge Development(SKO), which means that they were indirectly paid for by the government (SKO, 2008: 18). Theremainder was paid for by the UAS themselves. Recently the system has changed in the sensethat lectoraten are fully paid for from the first stream lump sum funds that UAS receive from theMinistry of Education, Culture and Science.Because the lectoraten are now financed with regular funds, SKO is no longer involved in theevaluation of UAS applications for new lectors. This implies that UASs have come to enjoy ahigh degree of autonomy in using government funds for the creation of lectoraten. They are freeto choose the knowledge fields in which lectors should be active and enjoy considerableautonomy in determining the job description of a lector. Broadly speaking a lector has four tasks:knowledge development, professionalization of lecturers at their UAS, renewing educationcurricula and knowledge circulation from and to society (SKO, 2008: 15). Each lector is expectedto form a kenniskring (‘knowledge circle’) consisting of UAS lecturers and professionals from theprivate sector. This is to ensure that their research and expertise reaches students and has enoughpractical relevance. Besides this lectors are expected to give lectures and supervise PhD students.There are no standardized measures of quality which are used to review the performance oflectors. SKO has evaluated lectors based upon professional standards developed by lectorsthemselves in collegial meetings. In its final evaluation report on lectoraten SKO hasrecommended the development of professional standards in relation to the quality of research(ibid: 21). The career opportunities of lectors are limited in practice because ‘seniority’ is animportant condition for the fulfillment of lectoraten. About 60% of all lectors are 50 years orolder. In addition, the average term for a lectoraat is 4-5 years although re-appointment ispossible. The far majority of lectors are holding another position outside the UAS at which theyare appointed. 40% of the lectors with a second job are working at a university, whereas another45% work at a profit or non-profit institution (ibid: 12).2.2.3 AccreditationFor fifteen years until 2002, the quality assurance process for higher education in the Netherlandswas a system of peer review (OECD, 2008a: 83). Many, however, felt this system of accreditationwas not sufficiently independent or objective. Moreover, possible interventions by thegovernment were limited to publicly funded institutions. As the Netherlands introduced theBachelor and Masters degrees, there was a change in the quality assurance process, with amovement towards external accreditation of programmes to reflect the wider international context36