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Planning and managing rice farmingthrough environmental analysisK. Borkakati, V.P. Singh, A.N. Singh, R.K. Singh, A.S.R.A.S. Sastri, and S.K. MohantyEnvironmental analysis provides insights into planning and managing ricefarming according to the prevailing conditions. This helps in developing situation-specifictechnologies and in selecting areas suitable for the applicationof promising technologies, particularly in rainfed conditions. Studies carriedout in eastern India characterized and classified the rainfed rice area in differentrice ecosystems and subecosystems and elucidated the main problemsand opportunities for enhanced productivity in them. A detailed analysisof the principal rice subecosystems provided the periods and quantitiesof water surplus and deficit and moisture use and recharge patterns alongwith other climatic variables during the rice-cropping season.This information was used for selecting the technological interventionsthat were considered suitable for managing rice farming in such areas. Theinterventions were compared with the farmers’ normal practices by monitoringcrop performance at selected locations in two rice ecosystems.Rice environmental analysis is carried out for various purposes. It provides usefulinformation on what the environments are, how much rice area there is, and howproduction is distributed across environments. It is supposed to enhance the resourceuseefficiency and impact of technologies. It provides insights into planning and managingrice farming and selecting areas suitable for the application of promising technologies.This chapter reviews some of the environmental analysis that has been carriedout in the rainfed regions of eastern India. The first part presents the ecosystem characterizationfrom the mega to micro level and the classification of rice areas intobroad ecosystem/subecosystem categories. The next part outlines the main factorscausing low rice productivity and cropping intensity in the principal rainfedsubecosystems and the strategies developed for addressing this and other related issues.The following section presents selected case study results of the on-farm researchconducted for developing promising technologies on the basis of environmen-Planning and managing rice farming through environmental analysis 191
tal analysis for rainfed uplands and rainfed lowlands (drought-prone, submergenceprone,and drought- and submergence-prone). The final section draws conclusions onthe planning and management of rice farming in the setting of an agroecologicalframework.Ecosystem characterization from the mega to micro level in eastern IndiaAn ecosystems analysis for research prioritization at different levels throughout easternIndia has been done collaboratively by the Indian Council for Agricultural Research,state agricultural universities, departments of agriculture, and the InternationalRice Research Institute (<strong>IRRI</strong> 1992).Mega-level analysisIndia’s rice-growing area occupies 42 million ha. A mega-level analysis indicatedthat, although rice yields in northern and southern India have increased rapidly inrecent years, yields remained basically stagnant in eastern India (except in West Bengal,which experienced rapid growth in recent years). The eastern India region, comprisingAssam, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, and the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh andMadhya Pradesh, is the largest rice-growing region in the country and accounts forabout 67% (26.8 million ha) of India’s rice area. In five of the six eastern states,average rice yield (1.8 t ha –1 ) is below the national average (2.7 t ha –1 ). About 80% ofrice farming in the region is rainfed. Rainfall is moderate to high, and is limited to ashort period. This results in drought in the uplands and flooding in the lowlands.Sastri and Singh (this volume) give a more detailed hydrological account of easternIndia.Eastern India is the priority region for research because of its large rice area andlow and stagnant rice yields. It is also a priority region because about half of thecountry’s population of one billion people live here and are largely dependent on ricefarming.Macro-level analysisThe macro-level analysis of rice-growing ecosystems in eastern India revealed thatonly 21.2% (5.69 million ha) of the 26.8-million-ha rice area is irrigated (<strong>IRRI</strong> 1992).About 16.4% (4.38 million ha) is upland, 47.8% (12.78 million ha) is rainfed lowland(0–50-cm water depth), and the remaining 14.7% (3.95 million ha) is under thedeepwater (50–100-cm water depth) or very deep water (>100-cm water depth) ecosystemcategory. For the rainfed lowland ecosystem, about 83% (10.6 million ha) hasa shallow water depth (0–30 cm) and 17% (2.2 million ha) has a medium water depth(30–50 cm) during the rice-growing season.Analysis of drought and flooding patterns, water balance, selected land characteristics,and length of the growing season in the shallow rainfed lowland ecosystemshowed that 54.6% (5.7 million ha) is drought-prone, 25.5% (2.7 million ha) is droughtandsubmergence-prone, 10.3% (1.1 million ha) is submergence-prone, and 9.6% (1.0million ha) is favorable. The entire area in the medium-depth category of the rainfed192 Borkakati et al
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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Page 144 and 145: 144 Amien and Las
Page 146 and 147: As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
Page 148 and 149: Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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Page 152 and 153: The decrease in harvested area only
Page 154 and 155: than in tidal swamp rice, for which
Page 156 and 157: Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
Page 158 and 159: and, indirectly, methane emission f
Page 160 and 161: Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
Page 162 and 163: ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
Page 164 and 165: Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
Page 166 and 167: ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
Page 168 and 169: Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
Page 170 and 171: Table 1. Area and distribution of s
Page 172 and 173: Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
Page 174 and 175: Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
Page 176 and 177: Characterizing soil phosphorus and
Page 178 and 179: Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
Page 180 and 181: Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
Page 182 and 183: Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
Page 184 and 185: ● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
Page 186 and 187: trials, K recommendations for uplan
Page 188 and 189: O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
Page 192 and 193: lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
Page 194 and 195: situations and the allocation of re
Page 196 and 197: estimation of drought were determin
Page 198 and 199: Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
Page 200 and 201: from October to February and a summ
Page 202 and 203: Table 3. Promising areas for ground
Page 204 and 205: 1. There are possibilities of growi
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Page 208 and 209: Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
Page 210 and 211: Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
Page 212 and 213: ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
Page 214 and 215: network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
Page 216 and 217: Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
Page 218 and 219: Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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Page 226 and 227: The radiation values range from les
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Page 230 and 231: Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
Page 232 and 233: Analytical procedureThe nature and
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Page 236 and 237: Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
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ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
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1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
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estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
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that they synthesize fragmented agr
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Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
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Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
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al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
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Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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