Contents & Foreword, Characterizing And ... - IRRI books

According to Bennett (1989), the higher illiteracy rates of women than men arecommon in eastern India. Five populous states (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, MadhyaPradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh), wherein rice farming is predominantly rainfed,account for more than half of India’s illiterate females. These five states contain 89%of India’s districts where the rural literacy rate is below 5%, 83% of those with ratesof 5–9%, and 67% with between 10% and 14%. Illiteracy is widespread among ruralwomen of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.The reasons for the low literacy rates among women and girls are social, cultural,and economic. Among poor farming and landless households, the need for childlabor within and outside the home is a major reason for boys and girls not to attend orto drop out of school. Girls are expected to help with the domestic chores, substitutefor their mothers in taking care of younger siblings, and help in field activities whileboys help tend animals after school. Another reason for the women’s lack of access toeducation is the greater limitation parents put on a girl’s freedom of movement, whichmay prevent her from going to school after a certain age. According to Mukhopadhyay(1984), girls who have reached the age of puberty are withdrawn from schools becauseof the “social dangers” associated with male school teachers and students. Thus,socialization, gender roles, and sexual mores all play important roles in deprivinggirls of formal education (Bennett 1989). Girls are married off at an early age, thusconfining them to the status of daughter-in-law, which curtails their freedom of movement,association, and communication even further.It is also traditionally believed that sons are more important because a daughterwill leave her mother’s home and join her husband’s family after marriage. Sons areexpected to take care of their parents in their old age (whole life) and after death,when they will perform the last rituals. Another factor contributing to low educationlevels for girls is the small return anticipated from girls’ schooling. While boys’ educationis viewed as an investment in families’ socioeconomic status and as old-agesecurity for parents, girls are destined to be married into other families and henceyield no returns to their parents (Bennett 1992). Girls will be mothers and workers inoccupations that require little formal education. Investment in boys’ education is likelyto pay more dividends in the future in terms of increased chances of employment andconsequent support of the family. In the dowry system, males who have higher educationcan request a higher dowry price. In addition to these reasons, the direct costs ofeducation also deter families from sending their girls to school. Although school educationin India is entirely free, expenses on books and learning materials, uniforms,and transport can be a heavy burden on poor families.Access to agricultural-related informationA focused survey of male and female farmers from the lower castes in the three villageswas conducted to determine their sources of agricultural information (Table15). A majority of the men and women interviewed obtained their technical knowledgefrom their neighbors. In both villages, households of the same caste clustertogether and obtain information through socialization. This information indicates theimportance of social networks and kinship in disseminating information and identify-366 Paris et al