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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice production, Faizabad District, eastern UttarPradesh, 1995.Chandpur Mungeshpur SariyawanVariables US$ % US$ % US$ %Cash inputsSeeds 7.57 5 7.37 5 6.89 5Fertilizer 31.94 19 26.43 18 28.86 20Tractor rent 22.17 13 8.57 6 6.49 5Animal rent 1.20 1 1.14 – 2.26 2Irrigation 30.06 18 28.91 20 17.71 12Hired male labor 0.29 – 2.26 2 2.51 2Hired female labor 18.00 11 4.66 3 7.14 5Total paid-out cost (TPC) 111.23 67 79.34 54 71.86 51Noncash inputsFarmyard manure 6.60 4 2.60 2 2.91 8Family adult male 8.17 5 12.06 8 11.29 8Exchange adult male – – 1.71 1 2.00 1Family adult female 30.46 19 27.00 18 26.11 18Exchange adult female 3.23 2 8.63 6 6.54 5Own animal 3.97 2 11.09 8 10.31 7Exchange animal 0.71 1 3.71 3 2.89 2Total noncash cost (TNC) 53.14 33 66.80 46 62.05 49Total cost (TC) 164.37 100 146.14 100 133.91 100Gross returns (GR) a 274.57 214.26 238.97Net income (GR – TPC) 163.34 134.92 167.11Surplus (GR – TC) 110.20 68.12 105.06Average yield (t ha –1 ) 2.2 1.7 1.6Average rice area (ha) 0.23 0.29 0.34a Includes byproducts.Animal systemsAcross all the study villages, animals constitute an integral part of the mixed farmingsystems. Farming households raise a mix of a small number of bullocks, cattle, andbuffalo. Bullocks and male buffaloes are used as draft power for plowing and harrowingthe fields, and transporting farm products. Animal manure is used as organic fertilizerfor crops and converted into dung cakes for household fuel. On the other hand,the biomass and by-products of crops and residues from the fields are fed to the livestock.Crop biomass includes straw of rice and wheat, green sugarcane tops, andpigeonpea and gram straw. Rice and wheat straw are also used as bedding, particularlyduring winter, as roof thatch, and as storage insulators, and are mixed with clayfor making storage bins. Rice straw usually lasts for 3 months. It is also a source ofcash income when sold during times of fodder scarcity. Farmers who grow sugarcaneuse bullocks to crush the sugarcane stalks. Female buffaloes are raised for milk, curd,and ghee, which are parts of the daily diet of Indian families.Using gender analysis in characterizing and understanding . . . 359
Ownership of livestock allows farmers to fend off risks of drought and to maintaincapital in the form of animals as insurance against bad times, particularly duringdrought. Livestock are also raised to cover large expenditures such as medical expensesand payment for dowry during marriage. Farmers also use livestock in exchangefor another resource. For example, a farmer with a tube well can providewater to the land of another farmer who, in turn, prepares his land with his pair ofbullocks. The landless laborers who own livestock but do not have crops and cropresidues work on a sharing basis and provide inputs to the land they cultivate as longas they get rice and wheat straw for their animals. For poor women, raising goatsprovides them with independent income, security, and instant cash during times ofemergency.Gupta (1991) stressed that, in a rainfed economy, it is not the crops but thelivestock that are the main anchor of household survival in the dry regions. Once thisis recognized, the primacy of fodder (whether from grasslands, trees, or crop residues)vis-à-vis grain becomes clear.Animal populationA higher proportion of the farming households in Chandpur raises cattle and buffaloes,whereas farming households in Mungeshpur and Sariyawan raise more bullocks.Women from poor and landless households raising goats is a more popularactivity in Mungeshpur and Sariyawan. A few households raise pigs as a means ofsecurity and instant cash (Table 11). Because of the proximity of Chandpur to themarket, household members, particularly those belonging to the backward castes(Yadavs), raise dairy cattle for consumption and for sale. According to key informantinterviews, the bullock population in Chandpur has been declining because farmersare shifting to the use of tractors for land preparation.Table 11. Percentage of farming households that own animals byvillage, 1995.AnimalChandpur Mungeshpur Sariyawan(n = 151) (n = 133) (n = 81)No. of No. of No. ofhouseholds % households % households %Cattle 89 59 60 45 16 20Buffalo 101 67 42 32 36 44Bullock 13 9 38 29 44 54Goat 12 8 31 23 22 27Pig – – 3 2 2 2Chicken – – 2 2 – –360 Paris et al
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
Page 302 and 303: Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
Page 304 and 305: found that a higher rural labor sup
Page 306 and 307: Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
Page 308 and 309: Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
Page 310 and 311: Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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Page 314 and 315: Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
Page 316 and 317: Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
Page 318 and 319: such that losses are reduced during
Page 320 and 321: P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
Page 322 and 323: and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
Page 324 and 325: espectively, to farmers’ income.
Page 326 and 327: Factors determining the adoption of
Page 328 and 329: mining whether or not modern variet
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Page 332 and 333: Using gender analysis in characteri
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Page 336 and 337: However, household members have cer
Page 338 and 339: Table 1. Village characteristics of
Page 340 and 341: taking care of dairy cattle. On the
Page 342 and 343: The biophysical environmentThe perf
Page 344 and 345: Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
Page 346 and 347: Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
Page 348 and 349: Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
Page 350 and 351: Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
Page 354 and 355: Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
Page 356 and 357: farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
Page 358 and 359: for rice but also for cash crops su
Page 360 and 361: Table 15. Access to agricultural in
Page 362 and 363: Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
Page 364 and 365: Agricultural commercializationand l
Page 366 and 367: Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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Page 370 and 371: The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
Page 372 and 373: Table 1. Selected districts and com
Page 374 and 375: Table 2. General characteristics of
Page 376 and 377: markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379: ther “extensification” in the u
Page 380 and 381: the productivity of lowland rice ca
Page 382 and 383: Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
Page 384 and 385: Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
Page 386 and 387: Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
Page 388 and 389: The economic characterization and i
Page 390 and 391: Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
Page 392 and 393: Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
Page 394 and 395: TFP, output and input indices200160
Page 396 and 397: Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
Page 398 and 399: 406 Garcia et al
Page 400 and 401: Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
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1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
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estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
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that they synthesize fragmented agr
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Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
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Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
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al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
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Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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