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Seventeen different agricultural products were considered and 23 land-use typesthat are currently practiced in the province were included in this study, of which 20are rice-based (e.g., rice-maize, rice-tobacco, rice-rice). A total of 200 land units weredefined by overlaying biophysical characteristics: irrigated areas, annual rainfall anddistribution, slope and soil texture; and administrative units comprising 23 municipalities(Lansigan et al 1998). Two production technology levels were considered tochoose from: average farmers’ practice and “best farmers’ practice,” both being actualland-use systems. The data for the input-output tables were derived from 1998-99 farm surveys in the province consisting of 1,844 farms in the wet season and 2,164farms in the dry season. The values for the input-output relations for the current technologywere derived from the average values for these farms. For the best farmers’practice, data were derived by taking the mean of the values with a yield level betweenthe 90th and 95th percentile.Based on the major development goals, 11 objectives were identified in consultationwith stakeholders in the province (Francisco et al 1998). Here, we will discussresults for two major objectives.Food securityUnder the base scenario (i.e., no water-sharing with constraints on land, labor, andwater imposed), the maximum rice production that can be achieved by the province is0.53 million t, but with hardly any nonrice production. This can be realized if 95% ofthe farmers adopt the technology corresponding to “best available practice.” The resultingland-use allocation will require 8.9 million labor days and result in a totalfarmer income of US$91 million.When the irrigated area is doubled, rice production will increase by 23% asmore land will be allocated to intensive triple and double rice systems. Employmentand income will increase by about the same percentage (Fig. 2). When the irrigatedarea is further expanded (to cover approximately 90% of available agricultural land),Index1.501.25Max. riceproductionMax. agriculturalemploymentMax. farmers’income1.000.751.0 1.5 2.0 2.5Irrigated areas (index)Fig. 2. Effect of expansion of irrigated areas ongoal achievements.478 Bouman et al
ice production increases by 42%, total farmers’ income by 45%, and employment by34% (Fig. 2).In the next scenario, we assumed that water can be shared among land unitsbelonging to the same irrigation system without expanding the irrigated area. Maximumrice production amounts to 0.73 million t. This can be achieved if all the farmersadopt the technology “best available practice.” It requires 12.0 million labor days andtotal farmers’ income will amount to US$123 million. With available land as the onlyconstraint, rice production, employment, and income will still increase considerably.IncomeUnder the base scenario, maximizing income leads to a total farmer income of US$953million, which is more than 10 times that of the corresponding optimization for riceproduction. This is associated with 0.24 million t of rice and 2.6 million t of nonriceproduction (tomatoes, root crops, mungbeans). This requires 11.5 million labor days.When the irrigated area is doubled, maximum income will increase by 26%, and,when it is further extended, by 45% (Fig. 2). Associated rice production, nonriceproduction, and employment will also increase, however, to a slightly lesser extent.More land will be allocated to profitable, labor-intensive rice-tomato systems. Thiscan be achieved if 90% of the farmers adopt the technology “best available practice.”Table 1 shows the results of the optimizations for the two major goals under thewater-sharing scenario. Goal achievements could be further increased if land werethe only constraint.Results show that a 140% increase in irrigated area could raise rice productionby 42% and total farmers’ income by 45%. Water-sharing would lead to a 40% increasein rice production, but only to an 18% increase in income, as relatively lessland would be allocated to the most profitable cropping systems (such as rice-tomato)with high water demands than to the less water-demanding root crops. Water willremain a production constraint in the province for some time to come, however, sincethe expected increase in irrigated area is just 2–3% per annum (Provincial Governmentof Ilocos Norte, 1999). Water-sharing is an alternative option, but it will requiredetailed surveys to determine to what extent water can be shared among land unitsbelonging to the same irrigation system. Even for the base scenario, maximizing incomewith the consequent high share of nonrice production (Table 1) would not threatenTable 1. Values of goals with water-sharing.GoalActivity Maximize rice MaximizeproductionincomeRice production (t) 726,767 279,897Nonrice production (t) 1,988 2,953,522Employment (1,000 labor-d) 12,006 12,357Total farmers’ income (10 6 US$) 123 1,125Regional land-use analysis to support agricultural and environmental . . . 479
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
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ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
Page 418 and 419: Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
Page 420 and 421: Table 17. Incidence of child labor
Page 422 and 423: Cumulative proportion of income1.04
Page 424 and 425: Table 21. Cost and return analysis
Page 426 and 427: Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
Page 428 and 429: were often burned for disease contr
Page 430 and 431: landless population reaching 50-60%
Page 432 and 433: Integration of biophysical andsocio
Page 434 and 435: opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437: 1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
Page 438 and 439: Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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Page 442 and 443: Description of the study areaWe com
Page 444 and 445: Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
Page 446 and 447: CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
Page 448 and 449: Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
Page 450 and 451: ice and the model is applied to exp
Page 452 and 453: Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455: estimation of a system of multinomi
Page 456 and 457: The availability of low-saline irri
Page 458 and 459: Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
Page 460 and 461: NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463: that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465: Framework for exploratory and predi
Page 466 and 467: and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 470 and 471: self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473: al warming since maintaining or cre
Page 474 and 475: eturns to purchased inputs due to u
Page 476 and 477: Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478: Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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