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lytical tool used to identify or distinguish the actual “doers” of tasks, decision makersand the potential users of technologies. A primary social mechanism by which menand women are bound into a relation of interdependence is the gender division oflabor (GDOL) in different tasks in farm activities. This will answer the questions● Who does specific crop and livestock operations?● Who influences a particular activity to be improved, changed, or eliminated?● Whose resources (e.g., labor) will be displaced/increased with the proposed●change?Who has the incentive to accept the technology or will directly benefit fromit?Knowing the user and beneficiary has both equity and efficiency implications.This increases the efficiency of farming systems research through targeting and specification,and takes into account patterns and activities of resource use (Feldstein et al1989). An improved understanding of gender roles means that women who were oftenoverlooked will be recognized while their needs, constraints, and productive opportunitiescan be addressed by agricultural research and extension. Gender analysisenables scientists to target women’s needs better and predict the impact of plannedinterventions on women.The conceptual framework for farm-household and livelihood systemsThrough gender analysis, women’s roles are not seen in isolation; rather, their rolesand responsibilities in relation to men are analyzed within the context of the complexinteraction between the farm household and the environment (biophysical, social,economic, and cultural). The complexity of rainfed lowland rice production systemscan be best understood by using a holistic conceptual framework for the livelihoodsystem (adapted from Norman et al 1983). A livelihood system includes the farmingsystem and off-farm and on-farm linkages. The farming system consists of a complexinteraction of several independent components (Fig. 1). These components can bedivided into two elements: technical and human. The technical element determinesthe type and physical potential of crop and livestock enterprises, and includes thephysical and biological factors that can be modified through technology development.For example, the crop calendar could be adjusted to avoid drought or flood bygrowing early maturing varieties or by changing the crop establishment method fromtransplanting to direct seeding. Consequently, these changes will have a major effecton gender roles in rice farming.The human element is characterized by exogenous (community structure, externalinstitutions, etc.) and endogenous factors that can be controlled by the households.At the center of this interaction is the farm household, which is often treated asa “black box” or homogeneous unit represented by the male head of the householdwith members having shared and equal access to resources and benefits from production.This assumption ignores the differing roles and sometimes conflicting interestsin resource use within a household that affect technology adoption or that in turn cannegatively affect a specific user group (Feldstein et al 1989). There is often inequityUsing gender analysis in characterizing and understanding . . . 341
Physical and biological conditionsSocioeconomic andcultural circumstancesPhysical– Climate– Rainfall– Occurrenceof droughtor flood– Land typeBiological– Pests– Diseases– WeedsSoil andtopographySoil typeSlope●●●●●●●●●Community structures,norms, beliefsKinship (nuclearextended)Caste systemLand tenureInfrastructureMarketsExtension servicesWagesPricesMale and femalehousehold membersResource allocationLand Water Capital Labor Human capital– Education– TechnicalknowledgeLivelihood systemCroppingsystemLivestocksystemOff-farmactivitiesNonfarmactivitiesGoalFig. 1. Conceptual framework for understanding the interrelationship between the environmentand farm-household and gender relations in rainfed lowland rice-based farming systems.in access to and control of resources between male and female members within thehousehold and their communities as a result of norms and traditions that dictate theappropriate behavior and activities of men and women. Studies show that there is anunequal allocation of resources within the households, and that adult female membersand daughters are the most disadvantaged, especially in South Asia (Agarwal1998).It is also assumed that household labor is homogeneous and thus is freely substitutableacross all household tasks, from household to off-farm wage employment.342 Paris et al
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
Page 284 and 285: Socioeconomic characterization
Page 286 and 287: The role of characterizationin ex a
Page 288 and 289: ApproachThe following steps were ta
Page 290 and 291: PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
Page 292 and 293: Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
Page 294 and 295: Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
Page 296 and 297: Table 3. Research resource allocati
Page 298 and 299: NotesAuthors’ address: National C
Page 300 and 301: In addition to the unavailability o
Page 302 and 303: Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
Page 304 and 305: found that a higher rural labor sup
Page 306 and 307: Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
Page 308 and 309: Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
Page 310 and 311: Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
Page 312 and 313: vehicle for realizing the untapped
Page 314 and 315: Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
Page 316 and 317: Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
Page 318 and 319: such that losses are reduced during
Page 320 and 321: P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
Page 322 and 323: and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
Page 324 and 325: espectively, to farmers’ income.
Page 326 and 327: Factors determining the adoption of
Page 328 and 329: mining whether or not modern variet
Page 330 and 331: irrigation schemes in the study are
Page 332 and 333: Using gender analysis in characteri
Page 336 and 337: However, household members have cer
Page 338 and 339: Table 1. Village characteristics of
Page 340 and 341: taking care of dairy cattle. On the
Page 342 and 343: The biophysical environmentThe perf
Page 344 and 345: Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
Page 346 and 347: Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
Page 348 and 349: Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
Page 350 and 351: Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
Page 352 and 353: Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
Page 354 and 355: Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
Page 356 and 357: farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
Page 358 and 359: for rice but also for cash crops su
Page 360 and 361: Table 15. Access to agricultural in
Page 362 and 363: Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
Page 364 and 365: Agricultural commercializationand l
Page 366 and 367: Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
Page 368 and 369: tional average of 18% 1 , and most
Page 370 and 371: The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
Page 372 and 373: Table 1. Selected districts and com
Page 374 and 375: Table 2. General characteristics of
Page 376 and 377: markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379: ther “extensification” in the u
Page 380 and 381: the productivity of lowland rice ca
Page 382 and 383: Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
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1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
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estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
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that they synthesize fragmented agr
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Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
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Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
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al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
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Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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