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and quantify the spatial distribution of input data. Examples are resource endowmentssuch as land, water, and labor that figure as absolute constraints in the optimizationmodel. GIS is an important tool in archiving and analyzing geo-referencedinput data and in presenting spatial output results of the optimization model, such asland-use allocations.Exploratory case study: Ilocos Norte Province, PhilippinesSite description and problem definitionIlocos Norte Province in northwestern Luzon, Philippines, with a population of nearly0.5 million people and a total land resource of nearly 0.34 million ha, is a region withlarge forest resources (46% of total area). About 38% of the total area is classified asagricultural land. Agriculture in the province basically consists of rice-based productionsystems. Rice is cultivated in the wet season between June and October, whereas,during the dry season, diversified cropping is practiced: tobacco, garlic, onions, maize,sweet peppers, and tomatoes, all supported by groundwater irrigation. The provincecan be divided into four subregions, northern coastal, central lowlands, southern coastal,and eastern interior. Agricultural activities are most intensive in the central lowlands.Major environmental problems are soil erosion on sloping land in the eastern interiorand groundwater pollution in the central lowlands (Lansigan et al 1998, Tripathi et al1997).Mean annual rainfall in the province ranges between 1,700 mm in the southwestto above 2,400 mm in the eastern mountain ranges. On average, 6–7 typhoonsper year cross the province, mostly between August and November, with considerableadverse effects on agricultural production. Soils are developed from very diverseparent materials. In the lowlands, sandy loams developed from alluvial deposits arepredominant.Rice is the most common crop. In 1993, the province had a surplus of 100,000t above demand (113,000 t). A well-developed marketing system has facilitated theestablishment of intensive rice–cash crop production systems (Lucas et al 1999).In response to the recent economic downturn in the Philippines and the Asianregion, the provincial government of Ilocos Norte formulated the “Sustainable FoodSecurity Action Plan (SFSAP) and Agro-Fishery-Industrial Modernization Framework(AGRIMODE).” This framework, released in February 1999, outlines the market,technological, and policy direction and action plans to be taken in the next3–6 years. The current major constraints to agricultural development as identified inconsultative meetings are the low levels of agro-fishery productivity and income.Some of their major causes include relatively low cropping intensity, underdevelopedirrigation systems, and low average farm size. The specific objectives of the policydocument are to design a food security action plan that would increase effective areafor crop production by optimizing cropping intensity and increasing the level of irrigationdevelopment. The province is envisioned to become food-secure and an agroindustrialcenter (Provincial Government of Ilocos Norte, 1999, Final Report, Vol.1—Main Document). The report is anchored on Philippine President Joseph Estrada’s476 Bouman et al
Framework for Agricultural Development, Food Security, and Poverty Alleviation,Republic Act 8435.Scenario analyses using LUPASThe Systems Research Network for Eco-Regional Land Use Planning in TropicalAsia (SysNet) was established in late 1996 to develop methodologies for exploringalternative options for agricultural land use and rural development. The methods andtools that are needed to analyze various scenarios of future land use in order to guidepolicy changes are operationalized in a land-use planning and analysis system (LUPAS)that has three main methodology components: (1) land evaluation, (2) scenario construction,and (3) multiple-goal linear programming (MGLP) (Hoanh et al 1998,Laborte et al 1999). Land-use planning consists of various steps. The SysNet methodologyaims at exploring alternatives for agricultural land use and development toassist in strategic planning. In an interactive process with stakeholders, SysNet methodsand tools are then tailored to local conditions. The four study regions of SysNetare Haryana State, India; Kedah-Perlis Region, Malaysia; Ilocos Norte Province, Philippines;and Can Tho Province, Vietnam (Roetter et al 1998).Results of scenario analyses consist of options for optimum land use under agiven set of goals and constraints and the associated goal achievements. Results furtherindicate required policy changes and the scope for new agricultural productiontechnologies that can satisfy the multiple goals for a given region. In the next twosections, we present results for the Ilocos Norte case study and show how LUPASwas applied to examine the effects of resource sharing and expansion of irrigatedareas on rice production and farmers’ income.For Ilocos Norte Province, LUPAS was implemented by the Philippine and<strong>IRRI</strong> SysNet teams (Francisco et al 1998). Based on constraints analysis and policyviews given above, examples from an exploratory study are presented with emphasison two different development goals: (1) increased food security and (2) increasedincome from agricultural activities. We examined the future possibilities for increasingrice production and regional income and the trade-offs between these goals. Forthis, we analyzed various possible improvements in water availability and their effectson the major objectives. We considered five scenarios: (1) without water-sharing,i.e., the available water is restricted to each land unit (base scenario); expansionof irrigated areas (2) by 110% and (3) by 140%; (4) with water-sharing, i.e., land unitsconnected by the current irrigation network can share water; and (5) no constraint onwater, i.e., there is sufficient water in all of the land units in the province to supportany land-use type. The current implementation is based on biophysical and socioeconomicdatabases updated in November 1999. Resource limits estimated for 2010 suchas land devoted to agricultural production (119,850 ha), water resources, and availablelabor for agricultural activities for the entire province and for each administrativeunit were determined. Provincial demands, targets, or market ceilings for agriculturalproducts were not considered in this study but are dealt with elsewhere (Roetteret al 1999).Regional land-use analysis to support agricultural and environmental . . . 477
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
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ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
Page 416 and 417: Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
Page 418 and 419: Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
Page 420 and 421: Table 17. Incidence of child labor
Page 422 and 423: Cumulative proportion of income1.04
Page 424 and 425: Table 21. Cost and return analysis
Page 426 and 427: Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
Page 428 and 429: were often burned for disease contr
Page 430 and 431: landless population reaching 50-60%
Page 432 and 433: Integration of biophysical andsocio
Page 434 and 435: opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437: 1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
Page 438 and 439: Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
Page 440 and 441: ming the distance of all line segme
Page 442 and 443: Description of the study areaWe com
Page 444 and 445: Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
Page 446 and 447: CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
Page 448 and 449: Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
Page 450 and 451: ice and the model is applied to exp
Page 452 and 453: Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455: estimation of a system of multinomi
Page 456 and 457: The availability of low-saline irri
Page 458 and 459: Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
Page 460 and 461: NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463: that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465: Framework for exploratory and predi
Page 468 and 469: Seventeen different agricultural pr
Page 470 and 471: self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473: al warming since maintaining or cre
Page 474 and 475: eturns to purchased inputs due to u
Page 476 and 477: Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478: Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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