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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Prioritizing the rice technology research agenda for EasternIndia. New York, N.Y. (USA): Rockefeller Foundation.Wopereis MCS. 1993. Quantifying the impact of soil and climatic variability on rainfed riceproduction. Ph.D. thesis. Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.NotesAuthors’ address: International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila,Philippines.Citation: Tuong TP, Kam SP, Wade L, Pandey S, Bouman BAM, Hardy B, editors. 2000. Characterizingand understanding rainfed environments. Proceedings of the InternationalWorkshop on Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments, 5-9 Dec. 1999,Bali, Indonesia. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute.488 p.32 Singh et al
Characterizing environmentsfor sustainable rice productionVan Nguu NguyenGrowth in the world’s rice production has slowed down. Since 1990, thegrowth rate of rice production has been lower than that of the population.This indicates the need to increase efforts to improve rice productivity andbring more land area under rice cultivation. Substantial efforts have beenmade to characterize and classify the environments for agricultural productionin general and for rice production in particular during the past threedecades. Major efforts in the characterization and classification of theseenvironments are reviewed and selected examples of the contribution of theseexercises to rice production via the development of rice technologies, expansionof rice area, transfer of rice technologies, and others, such as the assessmentof investments in agricultural research, are provided and discussed.Rice production factors such as varieties, water and land/soil resources,insects and diseases, socioeconomic issues, and global climate have alsoevolved substantially during the past 30 years. A new generation of rice varietieswith higher yield potentials and better resistance to abiotic and bioticstresses has been developed using hybrid rice and biotechnology. The increasingdeficiency of nutrient elements and pressure from insects and diseaseshave been observed in intensive rice production systems. Socioeconomicfactors such as labor availability and wages and availability of inputsand credits have changed with improvements in the economies of rice-producingcountries. The global climate has been warming and discussions coverthe implications of these changes for the suitability of rice production underdifferent environments.The globalization of the world economy and the decline in public investmentsfor agricultural research activities require that future efforts in characterizationand classification be evaluated in terms of returns to agriculturalproduction. Discussions refer to the issues affecting the efficiency and applicabilityof characterizing and classifying the environments of rice productionsuch as universality, completeness, objectivity, and scales and costs of theexercises.Characterizing environments for sustainable rice production 33
Page 2 and 3: The International Rice Research Ins
Page 4 and 5: Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
Page 6 and 7: ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
Page 8 and 9: AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
Page 10 and 11: 2 Singh et al
Page 12 and 13: development, for example, provision
Page 14 and 15: subecosystems were recognized withi
Page 16 and 17: Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
Page 18 and 19: Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
Page 20 and 21: Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
Page 22 and 23: This included standard countrywide
Page 24 and 25: deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
Page 26 and 27: Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
Page 28 and 29: Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
Page 30 and 31: Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
Page 32 and 33: levels of involvement. For example,
Page 34 and 35: ●●●ecosystem classifications
Page 36 and 37: Conclusionsclearly that they are di
Page 38 and 39: IRRI (International Rice Research I
Page 42 and 43: Rice is the staple food crop for mo
Page 44 and 45: first working group to identify the
Page 46 and 47: TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
Page 48 and 49: ferred it for wide adoption by farm
Page 50 and 51: ing, remote sensing, and computing
Page 52 and 53: ice environments will be needed to
Page 54 and 55: Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
Page 56 and 57: The completeness of characterizatio
Page 58 and 59: Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
Page 60 and 61: Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
Page 62 and 63: Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
Page 64 and 65: Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
Page 66 and 67: to water deficit because the crop
Page 68 and 69: for different periods of the year:
Page 70 and 71: depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
Page 72 and 73: Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
Page 74 and 75: Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
Page 76 and 77: Perception, understanding,and mappi
Page 78 and 79: and rice yield at regional or more
Page 80 and 81: SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
Page 82 and 83: was approximately 2,000 m with a to
Page 84 and 85: kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
Page 86 and 87: Table 3. Class medians were calcula
Page 88 and 89: Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
Page 90 and 91:
A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
Page 92 and 93:
In summary, the chosen geostatistic
Page 94 and 95:
elated over slightly longer distanc
Page 96 and 97:
Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
Page 98 and 99:
Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
Page 180 and 181:
Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
Page 198 and 199:
Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
Page 200 and 201:
from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
Page 212 and 213:
ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
Page 214 and 215:
network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
Page 216 and 217:
Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
Page 218 and 219:
Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
Page 226 and 227:
The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
Page 242 and 243:
Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
Page 260 and 261:
Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
Page 264 and 265:
NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
Page 280 and 281:
indicates the need to deploy broad-
Page 282 and 283:
ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
Page 284 and 285:
Socioeconomic characterization
Page 286 and 287:
The role of characterizationin ex a
Page 288 and 289:
ApproachThe following steps were ta
Page 290 and 291:
PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
Page 292 and 293:
Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
Page 296 and 297:
Table 3. Research resource allocati
Page 298 and 299:
NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
Page 302 and 303:
Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
Page 304 and 305:
found that a higher rural labor sup
Page 306 and 307:
Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
Page 308 and 309:
Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
Page 314 and 315:
Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
Page 316 and 317:
Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
Page 318 and 319:
such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
Page 322 and 323:
and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
Page 326 and 327:
Factors determining the adoption of
Page 328 and 329:
mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
Page 332 and 333:
Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
Page 336 and 337:
However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
Page 342 and 343:
The biophysical environmentThe perf
Page 344 and 345:
Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
Page 354 and 355:
Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
Page 358 and 359:
for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
Page 362 and 363:
Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
Page 364 and 365:
Agricultural commercializationand l
Page 366 and 367:
Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379:
ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
Page 382 and 383:
Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
Page 384 and 385:
Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
Page 388 and 389:
The economic characterization and i
Page 390 and 391:
Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
Page 392 and 393:
Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
Page 394 and 395:
TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
Page 398 and 399:
406 Garcia et al
Page 400 and 401:
Increased rice production had alway
Page 402 and 403:
Table 1. Total rice area, average y
Page 404 and 405:
use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
Page 406 and 407:
water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437:
1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455:
estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463:
that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465:
Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 468 and 469:
Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473:
al warming since maintaining or cre
Page 474 and 475:
eturns to purchased inputs due to u
Page 476 and 477:
Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478:
Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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