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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis/characterization Geographical Environmental characteristics/and rice area area parameters studied ReferencecoveredMicro (–) Rainfed lowland ● Land form IRRI (1989b)rice research ● Physiographysite, Khukhar ● SlopeVillage, Thailand ● Land use● Soil fertility and othercharacteristics● Detailed field hydrology● Groundwater table● Rice yields in different soil andland combinationsMega South and ● Climate-rainfall, temperature, and Garrity (1984)(11.6 million Southeast Asia growing season lengthha) ● Slope, soil texture, soil groups,and inherent fertility statusMacro Eastern India ● Irrigation extent IRRI (1993)(26.8 million ● Land formha) ● Fertility-related constraintsMacro Côte d’Ivoire ● Rainfall WARDA (1992)(329,000 ha) ● Toposequence position● Tillage method● Rice variety, sowing and intercroppingtechnique● Land tenure● Decision-making by gender● Production objectivetional-level statistics on various types of nonirrigated rice lands are generally unavailable.The work of Huke yielded standard maps of the regional allocations of riceland by ecosystem. The maps provided the basis for more comprehensive mega-levelgeographic databases, for focusing characterization on selected micro-regions, andfor classifying them into subecosystems. The upland ecosystem geographic databasewas the initial product (Garrity 1984, Jones and Garrity 1986). This database containeddata on several agroclimatic and soil parameters for each of the approximately4,000 upland locations on the Huke maps for South and Southeast Asia. The siteswere classified consistently according to a two-factor upland rice environmental classificationbased on the length of the growing season and inherent soil fertility constraints,and also a three-factor system that included an estimate of seasonal moisturesufficiency. The two-factor classification conforms with the four broad uplandsubecosystems specified in the International Terminology of Rice Environments (IRRI1984). The three-factor classification recognizes 12 major classes and, at a more de-12 Singh et al
tailed level, that is, by using three categories of growing-season length, six categoriesof soil fertility constraints, and four categories of water balances, a total of 72 classes.The rainfed lowland rice ecosystem database (Garrity et al 1986) was compiledusing a similar methodology. Approximately 6,300 rainfed lowland sites were classifiedin a three-factor environmental classification that included growing-season length,water balance, and soil constraints as delimiters (Garrity 1984). The other mega-levelcharacterization study is of eastern India (IRRI 1993), with a similar basis of assessment.The Asian rice-land soil constraints database covers all rice land in South andSoutheast Asia, including irrigated and deepwater area (IRRI 1987). This databaseincludes data from the FAO Soil Maps of the World (FAO 1977, 1979), with soilconstraints interpreted according to the fertility capability classification (Buol andCuoto 1981).These databases were intended to be useful in research prioritization. Theirimpact has been significant in terms of a major shift in upland breeding and agronomicresearch in the early 1980s, from recent volcanic soil to acid upland soils, andfrom flat land to sloping land.The rainfed lowland database had a lesser impact initially most likely becauseit did not include data on surface water depth regime, particularly the frequency andduration of crop submergence. Although the database included length of the growingseason and a crude water balance classification, sufficient data did not exist to classifythe surface water accumulation dynamics at the micro-region level. In its absence,there was no way to definitely classify and map the rainfed lowlands into thefive subecosystems. However, with the development of remote-sensing and GIS-basedmethodology (Singh 1987, 1988), the assessment of flood as well as drought becameeasily possible. Further development of this methodology (Singh and Singh 1996),which uses the crop vegetation index as a comprehensive reflection of prevailingconditions, including hydrological ones, in the crop, allowed taking full account ofseasonally variable environmental conditions and, thus, the reliable classification andmapping of rainfed rice lowlands into various subecosystems. This methodology,coupled with the rainfed lowland database, is now being used extensively throughouteastern India to analyze and map about 21 million ha of rainfed rice into subecosystems,and is presented in the next sections.Macro-level analysisThe generalized nature and small scale of mega-level databases strongly limit theirapplication beyond regional issues. Many nations are interested in researchprioritization and extrapolation that typically require much more detailed information,at least at the macro level (national/state level for large states). In several countries,some remarkably comprehensive and useful data sets have been developed (FAO1988, Widawsky and O’Toole 1990, IRRI 1993, WARDA 1992). The challenge is tomake better use of these data. An excellent example is the case of Bangladesh (Ahmedet al 1992), where extensive soil and land-use data sets and maps were developed bythe Soil Resources and Development Institute in collaboration with FAO (FAO 1988).Characterizing rainfed rice environments: an overview . . . 13
Page 2 and 3: The International Rice Research Ins
Page 4 and 5: Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
Page 6 and 7: ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
Page 8 and 9: AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
Page 10 and 11: 2 Singh et al
Page 12 and 13: development, for example, provision
Page 14 and 15: subecosystems were recognized withi
Page 16 and 17: Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
Page 18 and 19: Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
Page 22 and 23: This included standard countrywide
Page 24 and 25: deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
Page 26 and 27: Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
Page 28 and 29: Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
Page 30 and 31: Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
Page 32 and 33: levels of involvement. For example,
Page 34 and 35: ●●●ecosystem classifications
Page 36 and 37: Conclusionsclearly that they are di
Page 38 and 39: IRRI (International Rice Research I
Page 40 and 41: Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
Page 42 and 43: Rice is the staple food crop for mo
Page 44 and 45: first working group to identify the
Page 46 and 47: TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
Page 48 and 49: ferred it for wide adoption by farm
Page 50 and 51: ing, remote sensing, and computing
Page 52 and 53: ice environments will be needed to
Page 54 and 55: Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
Page 56 and 57: The completeness of characterizatio
Page 58 and 59: Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
Page 60 and 61: Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
Page 62 and 63: Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
Page 64 and 65: Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
Page 66 and 67: to water deficit because the crop
Page 68 and 69: for different periods of the year:
Page 70 and 71:
depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
Page 72 and 73:
Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
Page 76 and 77:
Perception, understanding,and mappi
Page 78 and 79:
and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
Page 92 and 93:
In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
Page 168 and 169:
Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
Page 178 and 179:
Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
Page 194 and 195:
situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
Page 200 and 201:
from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
Page 214 and 215:
network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
Page 216 and 217:
Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
Page 218 and 219:
Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
Page 260 and 261:
Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
Page 280 and 281:
indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
Page 284 and 285:
Socioeconomic characterization
Page 286 and 287:
The role of characterizationin ex a
Page 288 and 289:
ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
Page 292 and 293:
Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
Page 296 and 297:
Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
Page 300 and 301:
In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
Page 304 and 305:
found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
Page 312 and 313:
vehicle for realizing the untapped
Page 314 and 315:
Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
Page 316 and 317:
Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
Page 318 and 319:
such that losses are reduced during
Page 320 and 321:
P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
Page 322 and 323:
and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
Page 324 and 325:
espectively, to farmers’ income.
Page 326 and 327:
Factors determining the adoption of
Page 328 and 329:
mining whether or not modern variet
Page 330 and 331:
irrigation schemes in the study are
Page 332 and 333:
Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
Page 340 and 341:
taking care of dairy cattle. On the
Page 342 and 343:
The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
Page 362 and 363:
Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
Page 374 and 375:
Table 2. General characteristics of
Page 376 and 377:
markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379:
ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
Page 384 and 385:
Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
Page 388 and 389:
The economic characterization and i
Page 390 and 391:
Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
Page 392 and 393:
Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
Page 394 and 395:
TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
Page 398 and 399:
406 Garcia et al
Page 400 and 401:
Increased rice production had alway
Page 402 and 403:
Table 1. Total rice area, average y
Page 404 and 405:
use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
Page 406 and 407:
water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
Page 410 and 411:
Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
Page 414 and 415:
in a group) at the rate of $60 per
Page 416 and 417:
Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
Page 418 and 419:
Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
Page 422 and 423:
Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
Page 426 and 427:
Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
Page 434 and 435:
opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437:
1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455:
estimation of a system of multinomi
Page 456 and 457:
The availability of low-saline irri
Page 458 and 459:
Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
Page 460 and 461:
NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463:
that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465:
Framework for exploratory and predi
Page 466 and 467:
and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 468 and 469:
Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473:
al warming since maintaining or cre
Page 474 and 475:
eturns to purchased inputs due to u
Page 476 and 477:
Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478:
Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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