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Table 7. Labor input (person-days ha –1 ) in rice production, Chandpur, Faizabad District, easternUttar Pradesh. Use of exchange labor is not practiced in this village, 1995.Caste/operationFamily Hired TotalTotalM F M F M F laborUpper caste (n = 11)Prepare land 1.0 0.0 2.2 0.0 3.1 0.0 3.1Pull seedlings/transplant 0.0 0.0 5.8 62.7 5.8 62.7 68.5Broadcast seeds 2.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 2.8 0.0 2.8Apply fertilizer 2.4 0.0 1.7 0.3 4.1 0.3 4.3Weed 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.9 0.0 38.9 38.9Irrigate 2.1 0.0 0.5 0.0 2.6 0.0 2.6Harvest 1.4 0.0 2.3 26.6 3.6 26.6 30.2Thresh (manual) 0.0 0.3 0.5 29.4 0.5 29.7 30.3Total 8.9 0.3 13.7 157.9 22.5 158.2 180.7Percentage of total labor 4.9 0.2 7.6 87.4 12.5 87.5 100.0Backward caste (n = 51)Prepare land 6.3 0.0 0.4 0.0 6.8 0.0 6.8Pull seedlings/transplant 4.2 14.3 0.7 39.0 4.9 53.3 58.1Broadcast seeds 0.9 0.0 0.2 0.0 1.1 0.0 1.1Apply fertilizer 6.8 3.6 0.0 0.0 6.8 3.6 10.5Weed 2.7 24.1 0.8 30.3 3.4 54.4 57.8Irrigate 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.5Harvest 9.7 17.9 0.1 7.1 9.8 25.0 34.7Thresh (manual) 0.6 29.8 0.0 7.3 0.6 37.1 37.7Total 31.6 89.8 2.2 83.7 33.8 173.5 207.2Percentage of total labor 15.2 43.4 1.0 40.4 16.3 83.7 100.0Scheduled caste (n = 31)Prepare land 4.4 0.0 2.2 0.0 6.5 0.0 6.5Pull seedlings/transplant 3.5 19.9 0.8 34.3 4.3 54.2 58.5Broadcast seeds 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.1Apply fertilizer 8.2 6.4 0.1 0.1 8.3 6.5 14.8Weed 1.9 36.0 0.0 21.5 1.9 57.5 59.4Irrigate 6.5 2.2 0.1 0.0 6.6 2.2 8.7Harvest 7.4 24.8 1.0 5.0 8.4 29.8 38.2Thresh (manual) 2.4 35.0 0.7 4.3 3.0 39.3 42.3Total 34.6 124.3 5.6 65.4 40.0 189.7 229.5Percentage of total labor 15.1 54.2 2.3 28.5 17.4 82.6 100.0Using gender analysis in characterizing and understanding . . . 355
female family members among the upper caste households contribute less than 1% oflabor. In contrast, female members among the backward and scheduled castes contribute43% and 54%, respectively. These results are similar to the study of Kelkar(1992) on the roles of women in Bihar, which are influenced by class and caste factors.In this village, the contributions of upper and lower caste male family membersto total labor in rice production are 5% and 15%, respectively. The low participationof male family members in farming is due to their participation in nonfarm employmentin Faizabad City. Most male members commute every day to the city for workand leave most of the farm work to the female family members.Similarly, in Mungeshpur, female family members from the upper castes do notwork on their own farms. In contrast, the female family members from the lowercastes contribute about one half of the total labor input in rice production. Among theupper caste, the male family members contribute a low 7%, whereas the men from thelower caste contribute about one-fourth (Table 8). Although upper caste women arenot supposed to provide physical labor in crop production activities outside the homesteads,our findings show that women from the upper caste in Sariyawan village breakthe norms, out of economic necessity. Female family members from the upper castecontribute about 10% of labor in rice production (Table 9). These women are eitherwidows or de facto heads of households who are left to manage their own farms.Exchange labor is still commonly practiced in Mungeshpur and Sariyawan, as astrategy for managing production requirements when cash is scarce. About 20 householdsfrom the lower caste organize themselves so that they can exchange labor. Asfound by Chen (1990), households from the same kinship and caste group often borrow,loan, pool, or exchange productive assets, including labor, pump sets, farm implements,and bullocks.Value of unpaid male and female labor in rice productionWomen’s unpaid work in rice production can be made “visible” by imputing the valueof male and female family labor using the prevailing market wage rates. An estimationof noncash costs in rice production (Table 10) reveals that female family labor(exchange and hired) contributes about 25% of the total costs. In contrast, male familymembers contribute less than 10%. On a per-hectare basis, the imputed value ofthe unpaid labor of female family members is about US$35.71 per hectare. Theseresults indicate the importance of female family labor in saving the costs of hiringlabor in rice production. However, the work burden of women from the lower caste,small, and marginal farming households increases without necessarily having a compensatoryimprovement in their standard of living. Beteille (1985, cited in Ghosh1987) has observed that most Western scholars associate emancipation of womenwith the right to work. But there is also another side to the picture. In agrarian societies,work is regarded more often as a hardship than as a privilege, because agriculturalwork entails arduous physical work, low status, and low pay or no pay as in thecase of female family members (Ghosh 1987).356 Paris et al
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
Page 298 and 299: NotesAuthors’ address: National C
Page 300 and 301: In addition to the unavailability o
Page 302 and 303: Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
Page 304 and 305: found that a higher rural labor sup
Page 306 and 307: Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
Page 308 and 309: Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
Page 310 and 311: Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
Page 312 and 313: vehicle for realizing the untapped
Page 314 and 315: Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
Page 316 and 317: Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
Page 318 and 319: such that losses are reduced during
Page 320 and 321: P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
Page 322 and 323: and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
Page 324 and 325: espectively, to farmers’ income.
Page 326 and 327: Factors determining the adoption of
Page 328 and 329: mining whether or not modern variet
Page 330 and 331: irrigation schemes in the study are
Page 332 and 333: Using gender analysis in characteri
Page 334 and 335: lytical tool used to identify or di
Page 336 and 337: However, household members have cer
Page 338 and 339: Table 1. Village characteristics of
Page 340 and 341: taking care of dairy cattle. On the
Page 342 and 343: The biophysical environmentThe perf
Page 344 and 345: Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
Page 346 and 347: Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
Page 350 and 351: Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
Page 352 and 353: Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
Page 354 and 355: Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
Page 356 and 357: farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
Page 358 and 359: for rice but also for cash crops su
Page 360 and 361: Table 15. Access to agricultural in
Page 362 and 363: Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
Page 364 and 365: Agricultural commercializationand l
Page 366 and 367: Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
Page 368 and 369: tional average of 18% 1 , and most
Page 370 and 371: The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
Page 372 and 373: Table 1. Selected districts and com
Page 374 and 375: Table 2. General characteristics of
Page 376 and 377: markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379: ther “extensification” in the u
Page 380 and 381: the productivity of lowland rice ca
Page 382 and 383: Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
Page 384 and 385: Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
Page 386 and 387: Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
Page 388 and 389: The economic characterization and i
Page 390 and 391: Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
Page 392 and 393: Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
Page 394 and 395: TFP, output and input indices200160
Page 396 and 397: Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
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1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
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estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
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that they synthesize fragmented agr
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Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
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Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
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al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
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Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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