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Table 2. Accessibility indicators for surveyed villages—distance and travel times.To nearest local market To Ho Chi Minh City To all local marketsTime of Time ofVillage travel (min) travel (min) Accessibility index(min) Name of Distance Distance Demand/supply marketsmarket (km) Time Time (km) Time Time Time Time Distance1 2 1 2 1 2 (km)Duong Xuan Hoi Tan An 12.4 30 30 57.5 97 75 Tan An, Ho Chi Minh City, My Tho 65 51 29.8Thuan My Tan An 60.6 165 120 Tan An, Ho Chi Minh City, My Tho 126 82 37.6via road 22.0 90 60via canal 29.6 118 89Thanh Quoi Thot Not 22.7 30 27 194.0 298 216 Thot Not, Thanh Thang, Lap Vo,53 47 37.0Rach Gia, Can Tho, Sa DecVinh My A Bac Lieu Bac Lieu, Ca Mau, Soc Trang 255 246 44.0via road 17.2 30 30 294.6 455 308via canal 16.9 180 180 294.3 605 458Hoa Khan Tay Duc Hoa Town 17.9 36 27 46.8 94 70 Duc Hoa Town, Tan An, Ho Chi 108 64 41.2Minh CityDuc Lap Ha Duc Hoa Town 16.6 34 25 Duc Hoa Town, Ho Chi Minh City 51 36 29.0Duc Lap Ha to 39.7 92 69Duc HoaTown to HCMDuc Lap Ha to Cu 41.4 67 46Chi to HCMThanh Xuan Cai Rang Town 21.2 85 51 196.0 378 240 Cai Rang, Can Tho, Phung Hiep, 181 109 47.9(bridge) Ca MauHoa An Phung Hiep 28.5 114 69 206.6 420 265 Can Tho, Phung Hiep, Rach Gia, 188 124 69.2Vi ThanhIntegration of biophysical and socioeconomic constraints . . . 457
The prices of inputs and outputs in the revenue equation depend upon the distanceof the land from the market. Prices of inputs increase at an increasing rate asfarms move farther away from markets. Similarly, the prices farms can obtain foroutput they sell are assumed to decrease at an increasing rate as the farm is moredistant from markets. There are two components to this distance—the distance betweenfarm plots and the homestead, and the distance between the homestead and thereference market(s). In the Mekong River Delta, transport of paddy and rice inputs islargely by boat. Settlement patterns in the area usually focus on canals—with homesteadsusually bordering a canal or river.We specify a functional relationship between the level of input applied to farmingand the amount of output produced by the farm. The level of output produceddepends upon input levels, agroclimatic conditions, and other fixed land characteristics.Using the production function and the expressions for net revenue associatedwith cultivation of each crop, we can derive relationships between the factors specifiedas determining net revenue and production, and the demand for inputs by thefarm. The demand for inputs for crop k cultivated at location i is a function of the costof the inputs, the farm-gate price of the output, the characteristics of the plot, and theefficiency of production of crop k on the plot. Next, using the expressions for inputdemand, production, and the effect of travel distances on revenues, we define anexpression for the net returns associated with cultivation of crop k on parcel i, whichincorporates the effects of travel cost and the production technology of the farm. Twotravel distances are considered in the model. D i is the distance between the homesteadand the farming plot or plots operated by the family, whereas T i is the average distancebetween the homestead and the input/output market(s) accessible to the farm.Both distances are relevant in the model since various inputs used in farming (e.g.,labor, fertilizer, seed, etc.) and the outputs produced are transported between homesteads,farm plots, and markets over the course of a production season. The resultingexpression establishes the hypothesis that the likelihood that a plot will be applied tocultivation of a particular crop and the intensity of use will fall as the distance betweenthe plot and the output/input market increases. At the extreme, very distantplots will not be cultivated, whereas plots closest to markets would be expected to beused for intensive commercial farming.We form an expression for net revenue from cultivation of crop k on plot iamenable to estimation from earlier equations:ln(R ik ) = a 0k + a 1k ln(D i ) + a 2k ln(T i ) + a 3k ln(z 1i ) + a 4k ln(z 2i )+ … + a Nk ln(z Li ) + u ik (2)If we add technical assumptions concerning the distribution of error terms (u ik ) andthe correlation of errors, the probability of any crop k being cultivated on plot i isdistributed according to the multinomial logit distribution. This provides the basis forusing the multinomial logit model in empirical tests of the model. If we can rank thealternative land uses—as is possible when the sample is limited to farms cultivating458 Edmonds and Kam
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
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ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
Page 398 and 399: 406 Garcia et al
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Page 402 and 403: Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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Page 408 and 409: Table 4. Distribution of farm house
Page 410 and 411: Soil types found in the villages we
Page 412 and 413: Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
Page 414 and 415: in a group) at the rate of $60 per
Page 416 and 417: Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
Page 418 and 419: Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
Page 420 and 421: Table 17. Incidence of child labor
Page 422 and 423: Cumulative proportion of income1.04
Page 424 and 425: Table 21. Cost and return analysis
Page 426 and 427: Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
Page 428 and 429: were often burned for disease contr
Page 430 and 431: landless population reaching 50-60%
Page 432 and 433: Integration of biophysical andsocio
Page 434 and 435: opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437: 1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
Page 438 and 439: Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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Page 442 and 443: Description of the study areaWe com
Page 444 and 445: Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
Page 446 and 447: CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
Page 450 and 451: ice and the model is applied to exp
Page 452 and 453: Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455: estimation of a system of multinomi
Page 456 and 457: The availability of low-saline irri
Page 458 and 459: Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
Page 460 and 461: NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463: that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465: Framework for exploratory and predi
Page 466 and 467: and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 468 and 469: Seventeen different agricultural pr
Page 470 and 471: self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473: al warming since maintaining or cre
Page 474 and 475: eturns to purchased inputs due to u
Page 476 and 477: Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478: Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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