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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature conditions in a particular geographic area representdecision criteria for the natural establishment of plants. All the physiologicalprocesses take place within certain tolerance ranges of temperature. The temperaturehas to reach a certain minimum value at which biological processes start and theiractivity reaches its peak at optimum temperatures. At too high temperatures, the biologicalprocesses will cease (Morison and Butterfield 1990). Yield potential primarilydepends on the amount of solar radiation, especially during the reproductive andmaturity stages (Yoshida and Parao 1976).The climatic adaptability of the rice crop, which is adapted to a broad latitudinalbelt ranging from 40°S in central Argentina to 53°N in northeast China, is differentfrom that of other crops. The rice crop is very sensitive to water deficit during thereproductive to heading stage, resulting in high sterility (Seshu 1989). On the otherhand, extreme temperatures are destructive for rice crop growth and development.The critical low and high temperatures for rice, normally below 20 °C and above 30°C, vary among growth stages (Yoshida 1981). According to Yoshida (1973), highertemperatures result in increased tiller number when light is adequate and low temperaturesmay result in the production of more tillers under low light conditions.Nishiyama (1976) stated that 9–16 °C and 33 °C are the lower and higher criticaltemperatures for tiller production and the 25–31 °C range is optimum for tillering.In eastern India, temperatures are mostly within this optimum range and hence temperaturedoes not affect tiller production. Chaudhary and Ghildayal (1970), whileworking in eastern India, stated that 10 °C is the lowest critical temperature for tillerproduction. Owen (1972), however, reported that a temperature range of 20–25 °C isoptimum for flower bud initiation in cultivar IR8, whereas 15 °C prevented floralinitiation. Such conditions often arise in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and some partsof the northeastern states.Murata (1976) developed a regression equation between grain yield (Y) anddry weight at heading (Wo) and average solar radiation during ripening and opinedthat Wo is a better measure than solar radiation to assess yield potential. Yoshida andParao (1976) obtained a positive correlation between solar radiation and biomassproduction during the reproductive stage. In eastern India, during good rainfall years,solar radiation becomes a limiting factor for increased biomass and thereby grainyield.Thus, for the rice crop, all three components of climate—moisture, thermal,and light regimes—individually and combined affect growth, development, and grainyield. Besides climate, other environmental factors such as soil physical and chemicalproperties, weed flora, and other soil microorganisms vary. All these other environmentalfactors in some way or another are influenced by climatic factors. It istherefore necessary to make a thorough inventory of these climatic factors for thecharacterization of different rainfed rice-based cropping systems, which helps in planningagricultural development in any given region.216 Sastri and Singh
The eastern India scenarioIn eastern India, consisting of Bihar, Orissa, eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern UttarPradesh, West Bengal, and the northeastern states (Fig. 1), rice is the major cropgrown in favorable as well as adverse and fragile environments. Except in the irrigatedarea, which is very small, most of the region is monocropped and rice is grownunder rainfed conditions. The rainfed rice ecosystem in eastern India is again dividedinto different subecosystems such as upland, lowland, and flood-prone. The lowlandscan be further subdivided into favorable and drought-prone.These subecosystems, in relation to other cropping and production systems,form the overall agricultural scenario of eastern India. In lowlands, a typical cultivationsystem called the “broadcast beushening” system is adopted, under which riceseeds are broadcast in preplowed fields immediately after the onset of monsoonalrains around 15–30 June. After about 30–35 d, when sufficient water is impounded inthe diked rice fields, the fields are plowed in the standing rice crop. This operation iscalled beushening. Beushening helps (1) reduce the plant population, (2) weed thefields, and (3) create a semipuddled condition to minimize percolation losses to someextent.In irrigated areas and also in a small portion of rainfed areas, transplanting isbeing practiced. In uplands and in light soils, direct seeding through drilling in lines isalso practiced. The broadcast beushening method, however, is widely adopted.Sowing, beushening, and later crop operations depend entirely on the vagariesof monsoonal rains. In addition, winter conditions in certain states of eastern India setBahraichLUCKNOWJabalpurGorakhpurDarjilingMuzaffarpur DarbhangaPATNAGayaDaltenganjHazaribaghKanpurFatehpurAllahabadAmbikapurBurdwanRanchiPuruliaJamshedpurRaigarhCALCUTTARaipurTitlagarhJagdalpurGopalpurSambalpurCuttackBHUBANESHWARDibrubarhTezpur JorhatGUWAHATICherrapunjiSilchar IMPHALAgartalaAizawlFig. 1. Rainfed rice-growing areas of eastern India.Agroclimatic inventory for environmental characterization . . . 217
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
Page 164 and 165: Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
Page 166 and 167: ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
Page 168 and 169: Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
Page 170 and 171: Table 1. Area and distribution of s
Page 172 and 173: Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
Page 174 and 175: Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
Page 176 and 177: Characterizing soil phosphorus and
Page 178 and 179: Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
Page 180 and 181: Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
Page 182 and 183: Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
Page 184 and 185: ● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
Page 186 and 187: trials, K recommendations for uplan
Page 188 and 189: O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
Page 190 and 191: Planning and managing rice farmingt
Page 192 and 193: lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
Page 194 and 195: situations and the allocation of re
Page 196 and 197: estimation of drought were determin
Page 198 and 199: Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
Page 200 and 201: from October to February and a summ
Page 202 and 203: Table 3. Promising areas for ground
Page 204 and 205: 1. There are possibilities of growi
Page 206 and 207: mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
Page 208 and 209: Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
Page 210 and 211: Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
Page 212 and 213: ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
Page 216 and 217: Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
Page 218 and 219: Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
Page 220 and 221: in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
Page 222 and 223: fluctuations/variations in rainfall
Page 224 and 225: the desirable rainfall period at 50
Page 226 and 227: The radiation values range from les
Page 228 and 229: not affect the growth and developme
Page 230 and 231: Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
Page 232 and 233: Analytical procedureThe nature and
Page 234 and 235: late because of low rainfall at the
Page 236 and 237: Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
Page 238 and 239: 15 August), which may happen twice
Page 240 and 241: texture), then once in two years (5
Page 242 and 243: Characterizing biotic stresses
Page 244 and 245: Characterizing biotic constraintsto
Page 246 and 247: included in these studies. Later st
Page 248 and 249: Average number of insects per sweep
Page 250 and 251: Table 2. Categorization of weed and
Page 252 and 253: Table 5. Properties of individual c
Page 254 and 255: ResultsRelations among pests and cr
Page 256 and 257: Start hereInterview farmers todocum
Page 258 and 259: Table 10. Information used to prior
Page 260 and 261: Interpreting the results of indepen
Page 262 and 263: level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
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Table 2. General characteristics of
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markets for their food needs. With
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ther “extensification” in the u
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the productivity of lowland rice ca
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Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
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Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
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Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
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The economic characterization and i
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Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
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Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
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TFP, output and input indices200160
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Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
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406 Garcia et al
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Increased rice production had alway
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Table 1. Total rice area, average y
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use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
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water often brought with it a varie
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Table 4. Distribution of farm house
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Soil types found in the villages we
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Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
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in a group) at the rate of $60 per
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Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
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Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
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Table 17. Incidence of child labor
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Cumulative proportion of income1.04
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Table 21. Cost and return analysis
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Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
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were often burned for disease contr
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landless population reaching 50-60%
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Integration of biophysical andsocio
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opinion regarding what socioeconomi
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1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
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Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
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ming the distance of all line segme
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Description of the study areaWe com
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Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
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CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
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Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
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ice and the model is applied to exp
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Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
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estimation of a system of multinomi
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The availability of low-saline irri
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Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
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NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
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that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465:
Framework for exploratory and predi
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and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 468 and 469:
Seventeen different agricultural pr
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self-sufficiency in rice production
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al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478:
Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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