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Table 21. Cost and return analysis (values in kyats) of rice cropping under different production systems, Nyaungdon Township, 1996.Item RainfedDouble monsoon a Double cropping Rice-fishWS1 WS2 DS WS DS WS DSCostsMaterial cost 5,105 12,270 14,788 16,707 15,226 16,707 16,449 22,447Labor cost 13,483 12,655 14,162 21,170 30,320 21,170 14,198 20,916Total cost 18,588 24,925 28,950 37,877 15,094 37,877 30,647 43,363ReturnsMarketedAmount 2,518 769 3,333 1,724966 1,7241,117 2,963Price 10.00 11.40 11.10 11.80 11.10 11.80 10.45 12.00QuotaAmount 593 593 – – 593 – 593 –Price 3.75 3.75 – – 3.75 – 3.75 –Sale from rice straws 845 448 3,334 2,838 1,154 2,838 607 2,056Total returns 22,219 11,439 40,330 23,181 14,101 23,181 14,504 37,612Net returns season –1 3,731 (13,486) 11,380 (14,696) (16,219) (14,696) (16,143) (575)Noncash costs 7,755 6,246 7,685 8,847 8,187 8,847 7,048 9,256Return over cash cost 11,846 (7,240) 19,065 (5,849) (8,032) (5,849) (9,095) 3,505a WS = wet season, DS = dry season.432 Garcia et al
ing self-owned resources), net gain resulted in a wider range ($29 to $160) but with ahigher frequency of occurrence since net losses were minimized. This observationcan be attributed to the significant proportion of noncash costs with respect to totalcost (29%).In general, rice monocropping in the rainfed village generated positive net returnscompared with intensive rice cultivation. The lower net returns in the irrigatedvillages was due to the high cost of irrigation for dry-season cropping, that is, the highcost of diesel fuel and pump rental. Likewise, farmers engaged in intensive cultivationused more fertilizers, hence the higher production costs. Despite the higher fertilizeruse observed on intensive rice farms, however, yields did not increase enough tocover the high production costs since fertilizer use was still inadequate.Another important factor that must be considered in the farmers’ failure to recovertheir production costs was their inability to cope with the technological andeconomic demands of the new rice-based cropping systems in terms of time, labor,and capital resources associated with intensive rice cultivation. Note that among thethree programs advocated by the government (summer rice cropping, double monsooncropping, and rice-fish farming), only the summer rice production showedsustainability in farmer adoption. Double monsoon cropping was totally abandonedafter one year of implementation. Likewise, adopters of rice-fish farming drasticallymodified the system in favor of fish culture.Major production constraintsTo summarize the impacts of biophysical and socioeconomic factors on the rice productionsystems in the country, major production constraints (both biotic and abiotic)were identified and their effects quantified using the yield gap method. Through thistechnique, normalized yield losses associated with these constraints could be assessedand evaluated to determine their relative importance. Results of the study showed thatthe abiotic constraints significantly affected a larger percentage of the total rice areaand the estimated yield losses were higher compared with those of the biotic constraints(Tables 22 and 23).Biotic constraints to rice productionThe biotic constraints commonly reported by farmers in the survey area can be dividedinto three major categories: genetic problems, insect pests, and diseases. Geneticproblems included varietal degeneration, stunted growth, and lodging. Resultsof the study showed that the major genetic problem was varietal degeneration. Theestimated normalized yield loss associated with this problem was about 31 kg ha –1 ,resulting in a projected total production loss of 181,327 tons or 1% of the total nationalproduction. The primary reason for this problem was the continuous use ofseeds coming from the farmer’s own harvest without proper knowledge of the techniquesfor seed selection.For insect pests, seven species were identified by farmers in the survey area:rice caseworm, rice hispa, rice stem borer, rainball, gall midge, armyworm, and brownSocioeconomic and biophysical characterization of rainfed . . . 433
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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ForewordRainfed rice areas are asso
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AcknowledgmentsIRRI is most gratefu
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2 Singh et al
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development, for example, provision
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subecosystems were recognized withi
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Table 3. Methods commonly used in e
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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Table 4 continued.Scale of analysis
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This included standard countrywide
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deepwater rice ecosystems. The rese
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main MethodologyC
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Table 5 continued.Main Scale presen
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levels of involvement. For example,
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●●●ecosystem classifications
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Conclusionsclearly that they are di
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IRRI (International Rice Research I
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Widawsky DA, O’Toole JC. 1990. Pr
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Rice is the staple food crop for mo
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first working group to identify the
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TropicsSubtropicsTemperateSummer/wi
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ferred it for wide adoption by farm
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ing, remote sensing, and computing
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ice environments will be needed to
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Insects and diseasesInsects and dis
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The completeness of characterizatio
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Table 7. Levels and scales for agro
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Jamin JY, Andriesse W. 1993. Discus
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Tools and methodologiesfor biophysi
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Effect of climate, agrohydrology,an
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to water deficit because the crop
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for different periods of the year:
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depth scenarios (shallow, medium, a
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Water table depth (cm)500Shallow wa
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Simulated yield (kg ha -1 )6,0005,0
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Perception, understanding,and mappi
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and rice yield at regional or more
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SubareaSampling sites:GridTransectR
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was approximately 2,000 m with a to
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kg -1 in 50% of the topsoil and sub
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Table 3. Class medians were calcula
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Hard point dataClay, silt, sandHard
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A. Silt (%) B. 0.5 ccdfC. 0.2 ccdf
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In summary, the chosen geostatistic
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elated over slightly longer distanc
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Miura K. 1990. Genetic features of
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Rainfed lowland rice, growing with
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tively. In 1993, following dry till
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Rainfall (mm)Water table depth (cm)
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Saturated hydraulic conductivity (c
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in the uncompacted C0 plots (6.7 wk
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Clay classified≤ 2% 50 ha (2% but
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NotesAuthors’ addresses: D. Harnp
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target area of a breeding program.
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which is calculated from the estima
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hence grain yield. The three major
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ainfall data for each location. Mea
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such as 1980 and 1996, yield was hi
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Table 1 shows the results of the se
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )3UBN 19942103
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decreased with the use of old seedl
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The use of five genotypes with diff
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Mackill DJ, Coffman WR, Garrity DP.
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In rainfed agriculture, crop perfor
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GrainSite Year Code Group yield San
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Criteria considered for selecting r
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Table 1. Characteristics of the ref
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equired as the quality of the repro
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Cooper M, Rajatasereekul S, Immark
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144 Amien and Las
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As Indonesia’s staple food, rice
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Soil and climate of rainfed lowland
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isky when the crop is planted late.
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The decrease in harvested area only
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than in tidal swamp rice, for which
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Monitoring rainfed and irrigated ri
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and, indirectly, methane emission f
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Radar backscatter (dB)-7ERS windsca
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ERS SAR imageseries2. RSpreprocessi
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Fig. 6. Supervised classification o
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ConclusionsMonitoring of rice crops
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Characterizing soil phosphorusand p
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Table 1. Area and distribution of s
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Table 2. Lowland area (ha) classifi
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Fig. 1. Extractable soil P map (25%
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Characterizing soil phosphorus and
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Table 4. Recommendations for P appl
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Fig. 4. Extractable soil K map of t
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Fig. 5. Extractable soil K map of t
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● acidic pH (< 6)● low organic
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trials, K recommendations for uplan
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O’Brien DT, Blair G, Lefroy R. 19
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Planning and managing rice farmingt
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lowlands is submergence-prone. Ther
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situations and the allocation of re
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estimation of drought were determin
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Table 2. Effect of date of sowing,
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from October to February and a summ
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Table 3. Promising areas for ground
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1. There are possibilities of growi
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mmmm450350250150ASoil moisture useS
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Table 9. Yield a of preflood ahu (a
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Grain yield (t ha -1 )6Farmers’ l
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ReferencesIRRI (International Rice
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network (Sastry 1976). Temperature
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Temperature (°C) and solar radiati
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Table 1. Characterization of rainfa
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in eastern Uttar Pradesh under norm
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fluctuations/variations in rainfall
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the desirable rainfall period at 50
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The radiation values range from les
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not affect the growth and developme
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Agrohydrologic and drought riskanal
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Analytical procedureThe nature and
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late because of low rainfall at the
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Probability (%)10080604020Vegetativ
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15 August), which may happen twice
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texture), then once in two years (5
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Characterizing biotic stresses
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Characterizing biotic constraintsto
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included in these studies. Later st
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Average number of insects per sweep
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Table 2. Categorization of weed and
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Table 5. Properties of individual c
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ResultsRelations among pests and cr
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Start hereInterview farmers todocum
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Table 10. Information used to prior
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Interpreting the results of indepen
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level. Again, we augment our databa
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NotesAuthors’ address: Cambodia-I
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in soil nutritional status, especia
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flora. The range in elevation acros
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Table 1. Soil characteristics of th
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Table 3. Weed species recorded and
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Proportional abundance (log scale)%
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1.0Echi_colCype_iriMoll_penLind_spp
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+3.0Echi_cruMars_creEcli_albLept_ch
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indicates the need to deploy broad-
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ReferencesBangun P, Pane H, Jatmiko
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Socioeconomic characterization
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The role of characterizationin ex a
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ApproachThe following steps were ta
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PriceDS 0S 1P 0P 1dS 0S 1acbD0 Q 0Q
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Table 1. Ex ante assessment of rese
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Table 2 continued.Ranked byResearch
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Table 3. Research resource allocati
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NotesAuthors’ address: National C
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In addition to the unavailability o
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Socioeconomic constraintsFarm sizeF
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found that a higher rural labor sup
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Table 3. Rice area under HYVs from
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Rice varieties in farmers’ fields
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Table 9. Constraints for low adopti
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vehicle for realizing the untapped
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Parthasarathy G, Prasad DS. 1978. R
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Appendix. Agroclimatic zones of Bih
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such that losses are reduced during
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P = 0.5 R [a 2 C r2+ 2 a (1 - a) g
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and Itgaon, however, the plot-level
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espectively, to farmers’ income.
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Factors determining the adoption of
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mining whether or not modern variet
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irrigation schemes in the study are
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Using gender analysis in characteri
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lytical tool used to identify or di
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However, household members have cer
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Table 1. Village characteristics of
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taking care of dairy cattle. On the
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The biophysical environmentThe perf
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Table 3. Seasonal calendar and gend
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Table 4. Crops grown during the kha
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Table 7. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 8. Labor input (person-days h
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Table 10. Cost and returns of rice
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Gender roles in animal husbandryWhe
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farm activities, 25% in nonfarm act
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for rice but also for cash crops su
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Table 15. Access to agricultural in
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Hossain M. 1995. Recent development
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Agricultural commercializationand l
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Conceptual frameworkPopulation pres
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tional average of 18% 1 , and most
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The Dzao live in medium-altitude ar
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Table 1. Selected districts and com
Page 374 and 375: Table 2. General characteristics of
Page 376 and 377: markets for their food needs. With
Page 378 and 379: ther “extensification” in the u
Page 380 and 381: the productivity of lowland rice ca
Page 382 and 383: Boserup E. 1981. Population and tec
Page 384 and 385: Economics of intensive rainfed lowl
Page 386 and 387: Area (ha)50,00040,000Irrigated30,00
Page 388 and 389: The economic characterization and i
Page 390 and 391: Table 1. Rice varieties planted (19
Page 392 and 393: Table 4. Yield and input use of maj
Page 394 and 395: TFP, output and input indices200160
Page 396 and 397: Lynam JK, Herdt RW. 1989. Sense and
Page 398 and 399: 406 Garcia et al
Page 400 and 401: Increased rice production had alway
Page 402 and 403: Table 1. Total rice area, average y
Page 404 and 405: use of water by avoiding seedbed pr
Page 406 and 407: water often brought with it a varie
Page 408 and 409: Table 4. Distribution of farm house
Page 410 and 411: Soil types found in the villages we
Page 412 and 413: Table 10. Ownership of agricultural
Page 414 and 415: in a group) at the rate of $60 per
Page 416 and 417: Table 13. Pattern of loan use (% of
Page 418 and 419: Labor and employmentTable 16 presen
Page 420 and 421: Table 17. Incidence of child labor
Page 422 and 423: Cumulative proportion of income1.04
Page 426 and 427: Table 22. Estimated rice yield and
Page 428 and 429: were often burned for disease contr
Page 430 and 431: landless population reaching 50-60%
Page 432 and 433: Integration of biophysical andsocio
Page 434 and 435: opinion regarding what socioeconomi
Page 436 and 437: 1995-96 Rice production (t)TvRd6Rd1
Page 438 and 439: Farm-gate price of agricultural goo
Page 440 and 441: ming the distance of all line segme
Page 442 and 443: Description of the study areaWe com
Page 444 and 445: Table 1 continued.Variable Unit1994
Page 446 and 447: CambodiaFig. 4. Main transport rout
Page 448 and 449: Table 2. Accessibility indicators f
Page 450 and 451: ice and the model is applied to exp
Page 452 and 453: Table 3. Summary of estimates of la
Page 454 and 455: estimation of a system of multinomi
Page 456 and 457: The availability of low-saline irri
Page 458 and 459: Table 5. Simulation of effects of i
Page 460 and 461: NotesAuthors’ address: Social Sci
Page 462 and 463: that they synthesize fragmented agr
Page 464 and 465: Framework for exploratory and predi
Page 466 and 467: and quantify the spatial distributi
Page 468 and 469: Seventeen different agricultural pr
Page 470 and 471: self-sufficiency in rice production
Page 472 and 473: al warming since maintaining or cre
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eturns to purchased inputs due to u
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Francisco SR, Navarrete Jr. RL, Dim
Page 478:
Wade L. 1998. Nutrient research on
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