82 CHAPTER 04: PRIORITY OUTCOMES, INDICATORS AND MEASURESThe farm to school field needs further explorationof how farm to school procurement activities cansupport reducing a school’s environmental impactthrough changes in food production for schools, foodtransport, packaging and food consumption — alsocalled “life-cycle analysis” of food products. Thereare extensive research reviews documenting thepotential that food production, processing, packaging,distribution, consumption and waste or recovery hason the environment 43,64–67 . It can be hypothesized that:1) Local foods may come in less packaging; 2) Localfood processors may choose to use energy- or waterefficientmethods; 3) There may be efficiencies gainedthrough transporting local food; and 4) Changingschool meal protein composition over time throughschool purchase of foods such as local legumes,alternative protein sources and lean meats couldsupport reduction in greenhouse gas emissions 67–69 .Nearly all life-cycle analysis studies indicate thatsome of the largest greenhouse gas reduction resultscome from reducing red meat consumption 4,53,66–69 .Such procurement and dietary choices align with therecommended Dietary Guidelines for Americans 69,70 .A model for estimating and monitoring the potentialcarbon footprint of a school lunch will be available in20<strong>14</strong> through the Journal of Industrial Ecology 69 .A reduction in the “ecological footprint” of schoolswas considered as a priority outcome, but notprioritized. This complex concept measures thehuman demand on global biological resources.Originally developed as an indicator to help nations,communities or individuals understand their impacton the environment, the footprint is increasinglyused as an indicator of product sustainability oran organization’s values. Calculating an ecologicalfootprint of a school or school district will involveexamining practices beyond the scope of farm toschool activities, such as building size, efficiency of aschool bus fleet, energy use, energy efficient heatingand cooling systems, and purchases beyond food 71 .Policy Outcome: Institutional support for local,environmentally sustainable foodsSimilar to policy outcomes suggested in communityeconomic development, institutional policiessupporting local, sustainable foods is also an outcomerelated to environmental quality. Other policysuggestions are in the area of land stewardship relatedto food production.The policies in this sector involve institutions beyondschool districts to take action in order for schools tohave a sufficient supply of local, sustainable productsto purchase (Indicator 1), to support the local, regionalagricultural land base (Indicator 2), and to support theworkers who help provide those foods (Indicator 3).Limitations and explanations to the measures are:• Measure 1.1–1.3: Requires more transparency infood labeling and documentation of efforts byproducers and processors who are not certified orlabeled.• Measure 1.4: Policymakers may not think aboutlocal food supply as supporting environmentalquality in agriculture-related plans.• Measure 2.1: Joint-use agreements, also “goodneighbor” agreements, can be used by institutionssuch as a county government and a school districtto set terms for shared use of public property, suchas gardens or school yards.• Measures 2.2–2.6: These are limited by financialresources to pay for research, training andtechnical assistance.• Measures 2.7–2.8: These were includedbecause maintaining a local agricultural base isfundamental to farm to school activities. Moreresearch is needed on the success of transferabledevelopment rights (TDR) to keep agricultural orranch lands from being developed 72 . TDR allowsprivate property owners to transfer developmentrights to separate their ownership status fromthe piece of property. The ownership rightscan then be transferred to another piece ofproperty in a different location. When ownershiphas been transferred to another location, theoriginal property owner is restricted from furtherdeveloping the land, meaning that a piece of farmor ranch land possibly can stay undeveloped, whileanother location in the city or a suburb will beEVALUATION FOR TRANSFORMATION
CHAPTER 04: PRIORITY OUTCOMES, INDICATORS AND MEASURES83further developed 72 . To date, approximately <strong>14</strong>0TDR programs are in place in the U.S. with varyingdegrees of success in preserving existing rurallands 72 .• Measure 3.1: This indicator and related measureis included because similar to maintaining anagricultural base, food production requirescontinued healthy workers.Cross-Sector Connections from EnvironmentalQuality OutcomesWith Community Economic DevelopmentWhen a school district purchases sustainablyproduced foods, it supports economic viability forthose growers or ranchers in the region who maynot have as many market opportunities. If the farmto school activities are successful at reducing foodand total solid waste collected at schools, this isgood for the environment and economical. Thesesaved dollars can be used in other ways that supportthe program, such as purchasing more local foods.In Davis, California, the saved revenues throughrecycling and composting programs were used tohire recycling coordinators in the schools to keepup the momentum and keep educating children andteachers about how they can reduce waste 73,74 .members to learn how to grow, tend, harvest andprepare their own food. This additional local foodaccess can support healthy eating behaviors outlinedin the public health section. School gardens also canhelp participants be physically active during someperiods of the year, such as harvesting or turningcover crops into the soil.With EducationEducational activities link with environmental qualityoutcomes through awareness and an increasein knowledge facilitated through environmentaleducation topics covered as part of farm to schoolcurriculum and gardening.With Public HealthReducing the use of antibiotics in meats procured forschool meals can reduce related human health issuesof antibiotic-resistant infections. There has been arise in the use of nontherapeutic antibiotics in animalproduction, which may be a contributing factor toincreases in antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria thatcontribute to illness in human populations 75,76 .Reducing the use of pesticides or herbicides usedin food production can reduce the potential offarmers, farm workers and their families’ exposureto chemicals and thereby their risk for developingrespiratory illness, skin conditions or other relatedillness 77–84School yards that include gardens may provideanother access point for families and communityNATIONAL FARM TO SCHOOL NETWORK
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- Page 113 and 114: 105ReferencesChapter 11. Joshi, A.,
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- Page 125 and 126: 11736. Eisner, R., Foster, S., Hans
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APPENDICES133procurement and a guid
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APPENDICES137Appendix 3 References1
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APPENDICES145• Amount of acres se