AFRICA AGRICULTURE STATUS REPORT 2016

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Figure 4.1: Resilience and sustainability as complementary concepts Capacity over time in face of disturbances conservation farming collectively referred to as ecological intensification; plant and livestock breeding referred to as genetic intensification; and the enabling environment for SI to be delivered, termed socio-economic intensification. This section provides examples of interventions of SI that have worked and lessons from success stories. The section also considers incentives for policy makers to help bring about the desired shift towards resilient food production systems. The final section of the chapter provides conclusions. Resilience Sustainabilty Environmental Resilience Environmental resilience is the ability of environmental systems to absorb disturbances and still retain their basic ecological functions and structure. With respect to SI, the challenge is how to achieve sustainable and resilient agricultural productivity with more efficient use of all inputs while reducing environmental damage. Since agricultural production systems are parts of larger landscapes, they play an important role in the conservation of natural landscapes to enhance the flow of environmental goods and services and cultural values while minimizing negative externalities (Pretty et al., 2011). Capacity to preserve the system in the long run Source: Tendall et al, 2015 Economic resilience, the focus of section three, is the ability of the agricultural system to recover from or adjust to the negative impacts of external economic shocks. The analysis focuses on the impact of several factors such as climate change and variability, price fluctuations and political instability (insecurity, disruption of transport networks) that periodically and frequently shock the agricultural sector in Africa. In addition, the opportunities for and challenges to the resilience of African agriculture caused by the increasing inter-regional and international interactions including factor and product markets, value chains, and markets under the umbrella of globalization and regional integration, are also discussed. In section four, we analyze various aspects of social resilience. The section seeks to deepen the understanding of the roles of governance of resources and value chains, tenure on land, forestry, fisheries and other productive resources (e.g., water). It also deals with the role of social preferences in shaping social resilience under projected economic pathways. The fifth section focuses on the practical approaches that can deliver SI. These including good agronomic practices such as intercropping, agroforestry technologies and Analyzing coping strategies and capacities including indigenous and traditional strategies is very important in the African setting. Agriculture in Africa is under threat of low productivity due to limited use of yield-enhancing inputs (especially improved seeds and fertilizers), increasing water stress in many countries, and disasters such as flood and drought that are affecting crop, livestock and fish production. Forests are being affected in different ways such as unsustainable logging, slash and burn, and domestic and commercial firewood and charcoal production. The impact of these activities is highly location specific. Coastal and low-lying areas are at risk of flooding due to rising sea level and soil erosion. In some areas, infrastructure such as settlements, roads and bridges, and industries are at risk of disasters such as floods and landslides. To understand how to adapt to the increasing frequency of extreme events, we must understand the central concept of adaptation, which is vulnerability (Locatelli et al., 2008). Land and Soil Degradation Thiombiano and Tourino-Soto (2007) report that Africa is seriously threatened by land degradation which is being caused by inter alia, population growth, conflicts and wars with expanded refugee settlements, inappropriate soil management, deforestation, shifting cultivation, insecurity in land tenure, and variation of climatic conditions as well as intrinsic characteristics of fragile soils in diverse agroecological zones. As a consequence, Africa accounts for 65 percent of the total extensive cropland degradation AFRICA AGRICULTURE STATUS REPORT 2016 77
of the world. These authors also report that at least 485 million Africans are affected by land degradation, and the continent is burdened with a US$9.3 billion annual cost due to this phenomenon. Land degradation affects the poor in rural areas. Barbier and Hochard (2016) note that between 2000 and 2010, SSA recorded the highest increase (17–18 percent) in the number of rural poor living on degraded agricultural land (see Table 4.1). Estimates of the global extent of land degradation (Table 4.2) show that Africa is the second most affected continent (after Asia), and Europe is the least affected (Barman, Mandal, Pampa Bhattacharjee, & Ray, 2013). AfDB (2013) reports that 4 to 12 percent of Africa’s GDP is lost due to environmental degradation, with 85 percent of this loss attributed to soil erosion, nutrient loss with crop harvests without replenishment, and changes in cropping mixtures. Agricultural lands used for cropping and livestock rearing are more susceptible to degradation than non-agricultural lands (Nachtergaele, Biancalani, & Petri, 2010). In addition, Nachtergaele et al. (2010) highlights that land use, and associated inputs and management, are indeed the main direct causes of land degradation. In this regard, land use in itself is determined by natural conditions and cultural and socioeconomic aspects including institutional settings, infrastructure, information and market availability. Closely linked to land degradation, Africa faces an escalating soil fertility crisis (Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, & Byerlee, 2007; The Montpellier Panel, 2013) costing the continent more than US$4 billion worth of soil nutrients per year (IFDC, 2006). There is mounting evidence that at very high levels of rural population density, the well accepted positive relationship between population density and land intensification breaks down (Josephson, Ricker- Gilbert, & Raymod, 2014; Muyanga and Jayne, 2014; Ricker-Gilbert, Jumbe, & Chamberlin, 2014). The declining fertility of African soils because of soil nutrient mining is a major cause of decreased crop yields and per capita food production and, in the mid to long-term, a key source of land degradation and environmental 2 http://www. worldenergyoutlook. org/resources/ energydevelopment/ africafocus Table 4.1: Distribution of global rural population on degrading agricultural land, 2000-2010 Population in 2000 (millions) %change from 2000 - 2010 Rural population (1) Rural population on all DAL (2) % share (2)(1) Rural population on all remote DAL (3) % share (3)(1) Rural population (4) Rural population on all DAL (5) Rural population on all remote DAL (6) Developing country East Asia & Pacific Europe & C. Asia Latin America & Caribbean Middle East & N. Africa 3,706.8 1,258.7 32.4 202.2 5.5 14.6 13.3 13.8 1,398.4 71.03 50.8 125.2 9.0 7.2 8.4 6.8 173.8 67.0 38.5 6.2 3.6 4.0 1.0 4.0 294.1 38.3 13.0 5.6 1.9 14.3 18.4 17.1 294.1 38.3 13.0 5.6 1.9 14.3 18.4 17.1 South Asia 1,090.4 285.2 26.2 27.4 2.5 17.8 17.8 18.9 Sub-Saharan Africa Developed Country 554.6 114.1 20.6 32.4 5.8 28 37.8 39.3 440.7 72.6 17.9 3.2 0.8 2.6 -2.8 -1.8 World 4,111.5 1,331.3 34.0 205.4 5.0 13.4 12.4 13.6 Source: Barbier, E. B., & Hochard, J. P. (2016). 78 AFRICA AGRICULTURE STATUS REPORT 2016
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FOREWORD Over the last decade, mill
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Africa Agricul
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ACRONYMS Africa Lead AAS AASR AATIF
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FMARD FSN FTF GACSA GAFSP GAIN GART
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SAKSS SBCC SCARDA SCM SDG SDI SI SM
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Introduction For decades, observers
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and changing food diets associated
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Table 1.2: Population growth of sel
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Figure 1.4: Changes in annual agric
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already occurring (Headey & Jayne,
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lease of customary land without the
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Hence, the pattern of trade illustr
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Table 1.4: Changes in farm structur
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of the pathway to food and nutritio
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Jayne, T. S., Chamberlin, J., Traub
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KEY MESSAGES ONE CAADP is an unpara
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Figure 2.1.Overview of the CAADP Im
Page 39 and 40: level. The success of ReSAKSS is be
Page 41 and 42: agricultural potential, alternative
Page 43 and 44: Table 2.1: Trends in selected CAADP
Page 45 and 46: poverty fell faster during this per
Page 47 and 48: expenditure (research, extension, i
Page 49 and 50: Table 2.4. Average annual change in
Page 51 and 52: captures the individual pathways of
Page 53 and 54: MA also has to be underpinned by lo
Page 55 and 56: References African Union. (2014). M
Page 57 and 58: Meenakshi, J.V., Johnson, N.L., Man
Page 59 and 60: KEY MESSAGES ONE TWO THREE FOUR Afr
Page 61 and 62: GDP declined by 1.4 percent in 2009
Page 63 and 64: from political violence, terrorism,
Page 65 and 66: interpretation is implied, this obs
Page 67 and 68: Differences in the African pattern
Page 69 and 70: Table 3.5: Trends in types of emplo
Page 71 and 72: that would likely affect the contri
Page 73 and 74: c. Concentration of farm structure
Page 75 and 76: a. Invest in education to upgrade t
Page 77 and 78: These could include policy measures
Page 79 and 80: References African Center for Econo
Page 81 and 82: Giller, K. E., Rowe, E. C., de Ridd
Page 83 and 84: Ndung’u, N. S. (2016). Viewpoint:
Page 85 and 86: World Bank. (2015). World developme
Page 87 and 88: KEY MESSAGES ONE Although sustainab
Page 89: BOX 4.1: Components of Sustainable
Page 93 and 94: Further, Locatelli et al. (2008) ha
Page 95 and 96: Climate and Weather Variability The
Page 97 and 98: Resilience of livelihoods is determ
Page 99 and 100: While acknowledging successes of SI
Page 101 and 102: Entry Points For Sustainable Intens
Page 103 and 104: BOX 4.4: The CSA Compendium: A scie
Page 105 and 106: Successful interventions include fo
Page 107 and 108: Open data combined with agricultura
Page 109 and 110: According to Tshibaka (2014), evide
Page 111 and 112: References Abdulai, A., & Delgado,
Page 113 and 114: Enfors, E. (2013). Social-ecologica
Page 115 and 116: Lipper, L., Thornton, P., Campbell,
Page 117 and 118: Toulmin, C., Leonard, R., Brock, K.
Page 119 and 120: KEY MESSAGES ONE In SSA, sustainabl
Page 121 and 122: Figure 5.1: Poverty traps framework
Page 123 and 124: Cereal Yield/Kilogram Per Hectare F
Page 125 and 126: Table 5.2: Correlation between fact
Page 127 and 128: Table 5.3: Farmer use of improved i
Page 129 and 130: Figure 5.9: Agricultural research s
Page 131 and 132: association is found for cereal out
Page 133 and 134: AGRA’s Experience The observation
Page 135 and 136: Increase access to affordable crop
Page 137 and 138: Sheahan, M., & Barrett, C. B. (2014
Page 139 and 140: KEY MESSAGES ONE Smallholder farmer
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transformation in Africa. The achie
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from agribusiness actors to smallho
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season, maize prices could be 270 p
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critical challenges and the solutio
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Limited access and high cost of acc
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of onion production in northern Gha
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Conclusions This chapter presents t
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Collins, D., Morduch, ,. J., Ruther
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Minot, N. (2014). Food price volati
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Weatherspoon, D. D., & Reardon, T.
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KEY MESSAGES ONE Access to finance
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esources into agriculture. This in
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Table 7.1: Indicative investments t
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technical knowledge about products.
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continue to experience inadequate a
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Box 7.1: GAFSP: Country Examples Rw
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Private Equity Association, total p
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drawing down assets, and 25 percent
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equires: recognition of the critica
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Policy Recommendations This review
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Meyer, R. L. (2015, March). Financi
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KEY MESSAGES ONE The African contin
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Figure 8.1: Mobile phone based serv
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high input costs, and a disconnecte
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available through less high-tech de
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Figure 8.4: Kenya leads the pack fo
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years and higher quality seeds are
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CASE STUDY FieldLook South Sudan in
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Rationale behind rapid adoption •
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CASE STUDY Eastern Africa Farmer Fe
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many others have none or have strin
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the strategic adoption of ICT with
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To address constraints to improving
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References Accenture. (2015). Digit
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Gustafson, S. (27.1.2016). The Digi
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Wolfenson K. D. (2013). Coping with
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KEY MESSAGES ONE A guided evolution
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een registered over the last decade
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the AIS paradigm at policy and prog
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Box 9.2: Rwanda - A Phoenix Rising
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other supportive partners (tertiary
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Table 9.2: SSA AR4D funding through
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(e.g., NARIs, universities, NGOs, F
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Table 9.3: Number of extension agen
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the whole farm whereas the field sc
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approach, organizational or system
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CASE STUDY Regional Universities Fo
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CASE STUDY African Network for Agri
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CASE STUDY FAO—Tropical Agricultu
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Bizimana, C. (2014). Rwanda’s Ach
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Rwanda. Retrieved from http://www.m
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World Bank. (2007). Project Apprais
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KEY MESSAGES ONE The poverty rate a
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Table 10.1: Number of undernourishe
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Figure 10.6: Stunting in children u
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Why single out nutrition matters? A
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BOX 10.1: The 7 Malabo Declaration
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Reducing post-harvest losses FAO es
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BOX 10.4: Growing trend towards a m
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References African Union. (2015). T
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Schmidt, R. H., & Rodrick, G. E. (2
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“Africa is simply tired of being
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2025, tripling intra-African trade,
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towards agricultural transformation
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While agricultural research generat
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258 AFRICA AGRICULTURE STATUS REPOR
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Technical Notes The following conve
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Madagascar 72.6 72.3 72.1 71.8 71.2
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Madagascar 2.81 -15.28 6.54 2.19 1.
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Madagascar 351.1 337.2 332.9 323.7
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Madagascar 2,020 1,967 2,202 2,354
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Madagascar 86.0 84.2 87.3 91.8 103.
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Mali .. .. 52.0 15.7 17.5 31.1 22.5
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Madagascar -0.0053 -0.0075 0.0073 -
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Malawi 401.9 405.1 437.2 438.9 511.
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Madagascar 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6
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Madagascar 0.9 1.0 1.6 1.9 2.8 5.6
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Liberia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
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Liberia 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.5
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