Direct Energy, 2018a

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9 BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 225 Example anode material Example cathode material Example electrolyte Example applications Lead acid Alkaline Lithium Nickel Metal Hydride Pb Zn Li LaNi 5 PbO 2 MnO 2 CF or MnO 2 H 2 SO 4 Car ignitions Theoretical specic energy, W·h kg Practical specic energy, W·h kg References [128, p. 15.11] [140] KOH or NaOH Toys Organic solvents and LiBF 4 Cellphones, Medical devices NiOOH KOH 252 358 448 240 35 154 200 100 [128, p. 8.10] [140] [128, p. 15.1, p. 31.5] Powertools [128, p. 15.1] [146] Table 9.2: Example material components and specic energy values for batteries based on dierent chemistries. specic energy of the chemical reaction involved while the sixth row lists example specic energy values for practical devices which are necessarily lower than the theoretical values. The specic energy values in the table can be compared to specic energy of various other materials or energy conversion devices listed in Appendix D. 9.5.2 Lead Acid Lead acid batteries are secondary batteries which typically have an anode of Pb and a cathode of PbO 2 [128, ch. 15]. The electrolyte is a liquid solution of the acid H 2 SO 4 which ionizes into 2H + and SO 2− 4 . The reaction
226 9.5 Battery Types at the anode is Pb+SO 2− 4 → PbSO 4 +2e − (9.48) with a redox potential of V rp =0.37 V [140]. The reaction at the cathode is PbO 2 + SO 2− 4 +4H + +2e − → PbSO 4 +2H 2 O (9.49) with a redox potential of V rp =1.685 V [140]. The overall cell voltage is V cell =2.055 V, so in a car battery, six cells are packaged in series. Lead acid batteries have a long history. The development ofthe battery dates to the work ofVolta around 1795 [3, p. 2], and practical lead acid batteries were rst developed around 1860 by Raymond Gaston Planté [128, p. 16.1.1]. Today, lead acid batteries are used to start the ignition system in cars and trucks, used as stationary backup power systems, and used in other applications requiring large capacity and large output current. Typically, lead acid batteries can handle relatively high current, and they operate well over a wide temperature range [128, p. 15.2]. Additionally, they have a at discharge curve [128, p. 15.2]. Other types ofbatteries have a higher energy density and specic energy, so lead acid batteries are used in situations where specic energy is less ofa concern than other factors. 9.5.3 Alkaline Alkaline batteries typically have a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide MnO 2 cathode [128, p. 8.10]. Figure 9.7 shows naturally occurring manganese dioxide (the dark mineral) on feldspar (the white mineral) from Ruggles mine near Grafton, New Hampshire. The batteries are called alkaline due to the use ofan alkaline electrolyte, typically a liquid potassium hydroxide KOH solution [128, p. 8.10]. Most alkaline batteries are primary batteries, but some secondary alkaline batteries are available. Alkaline batteries have many nice properties. They can handle high current outputs, they are inexpensive, and they operate well over a wide temperature range [128, p. 8.10]. One limitation, though, is that they have a sloping discharge curve [128, p. 8.10]. Alkaline batteries were originally developed for military applications during WWII [128, ch. 8]. They became commercially available in 1959, and they became popular in the 1980s with improvements in their quality [128, p.11.1]. They are commonly used today in inexpensive electronics, toys, and gadgets.
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Direct Energy Conversion by Andrea
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CONTENTS i Contents Contents i 1 In
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CONTENTS iii 6.3.2 Energy Levels in
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CONTENTS v 9.6 Fuel Cells . . . . .
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Acknowledgements I would like to th
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2 1.2 Preview of Topics to connect
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4 1.2 Preview of Topics Math throug
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6 1.2 Preview of Topics Process Spo
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8 1.2 Preview of Topics drodynamic
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10 1.4 Measures of Power and Energy
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12 1.5 Properties of Materials 1.5
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14 1.5 Properties of Materials most
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16 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves −→
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18 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves Relate
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20 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves A unif
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22 1.7 Problems
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24 2.2 Capacitors 2.2 Capacitors 2.
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26 2.2 Capacitors 2.2.3 Permittivit
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28 2.2 Capacitors â z â y â x No
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30 2.2 Capacitors Figure 2.3: Natur
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32 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Piezoe
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34 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Lattic
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36 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Herman
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38 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Figure
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40 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices c a β
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42 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices In cer
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44 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices made m
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46 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices tions.
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48 2.4 Problems 2.5. A piezoelectri
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50 2.4 Problems 2.13. Consider a pi
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52 2.4 Problems 2.16. The gure belo
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54 3.2 Pyroelectricity Material Che
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56 3.3 Electro-Optics KH 2 PO 4 [25
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58 3.3 Electro-Optics The rst two t
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60 3.3 Electro-Optics used as an el
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62 3.4 Notation Quagmire Notation i
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64 3.5 Problems 3.5 Problems 3.1. F
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66 3.5 Problems −→ DinC/m 2 unp
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68 4.1 Introduction Center-fed half
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70 4.2 Electromagnetic Radiation In
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72 4.2 Electromagnetic Radiation ar
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74 4.3 Antenna Components and Denit
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76 4.4 Antenna Characteristics ante
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78 4.4 Antenna Characteristics Impe
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80 4.4 Antenna Characteristics Azim
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82 4.4 Antenna Characteristics 4.4.
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84 4.4 Antenna Characteristics 5 Li
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86 4.5 Problems Figure 4.6: A snow
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88 4.5 Problems 4.5. Match the foll
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90 4.5 Problems 4.8. Radiation patt
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92 5.2 Physics of the Hall Eect The
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94 5.2 Physics of the Hall Eect The
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96 5.3 Magnetohydrodynamics This am
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98 5.5 Applications of Hall Eect De
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100 5.6 Problems 5.6 Problems 5.1.
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102 6.2 The Wave and Particle Natur
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104 6.3 Semiconductors and Energy L
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120 6.4 Crystallography Revisited L
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122 6.5 Pn Junctions E Indirect Sem
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124 6.5 Pn Junctions an excess of n
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126 6.5 Pn Junctions V x - + Energy
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128 6.6 Solar Cells to day and loca
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130 6.6 Solar Cells dot based mater
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132 6.7 Photodetectors Solar Panel
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134 6.7 Photodetectors 6.7.2 Measur
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6 PHOTOVOLTAICS 137 6.3. The gure i
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 139 7 Lam
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 141 Photo
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 143 Absor
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 145 We ca
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 147 If we
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 149 tube
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 151 easil
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 153 Power
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 155 Two L
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 157 but n
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 159 of ec
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 161 the o
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 163 Ti:Sa
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 165 the b
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 167 Gas D
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 169 categ
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 171 7.8.
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 173 8 Thermoelect
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Page 204 and 205: 8 THERMOELECTRICS 193 Figure 8.4: L
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Page 213 and 214: 202 9.2 Measures of the Ability of
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Page 227 and 228: 216 9.4 Measures of Batteries and F
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Page 241 and 242: 230 9.6 Fuel Cells Fuel cell compon
Page 243 and 244: 232 9.6 Fuel Cells 9.6.3 Practical
Page 245 and 246: 234 9.7 Problems 9.7 Problems 9.1.
Page 247 and 248: 236 9.7 Problems A E - + I B D H 2
Page 249 and 250: 238 10.3 Radiation Detectors high e
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Page 257 and 258: 246 11.2 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
Page 259 and 260: 248 11.3 Principle of Least Action
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Page 263 and 264: 252 11.5 Mass Spring Example not in
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Page 269 and 270: 258 11.6 Capacitor Inductor Example
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Page 273 and 274: 262 11.7 Schrödinger's Equation 11
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Page 281 and 282: 270 12.2 Electrical Energy Conversi
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276 12.3 Mechanical Energy Conversi
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282 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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284 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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286 12.5 Chemical Energy Conversion
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288 12.6 Problems 12.6 Problems 12.
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290 12.6 Problems 12.6. Match the d
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292 13.1 Introduction • Describe
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294 13.2 Preliminary Ideas Assuming
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296 13.3 Derivation of the Lagrangi
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306 13.4 Deriving the Thomas Fermi
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308 13.5 From Thomas Fermi Theory t
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310 13.6 Problems (a) Write the Ham
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312 14.1 Introduction damental equa
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314 14.2 Types of Symmetries be wri
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316 14.3 Continuous Symmetries and
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322 14.4 Derivation of the Innitesi
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330 14.5 Invariants and we end up w
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332 14.5 Invariants in the limit ε
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334 14.5 Invariants Next use Eq. 14
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336 14.6 Summary 14.6 Summary In th
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338 14.7 Problems 14.6. The equatio
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340 14.7 Problems
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342 Appendices Symbol Quantity Unit
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350 Appendices Prex name Symbol Val
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352 Appendices for voltage. (As an
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354 Appendices Material or Device S
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356 REFERENCES [15] E. C. Jordan an
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358 REFERENCES [45] V. K. Tikhomiro
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360 REFERENCES [73] M. G. Thomas, H
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362 REFERENCES [100] A. Ishibashi,
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364 REFERENCES [125] D. Wright, Req
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366 REFERENCES [150] J. P. Owejan,
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368 REFERENCES [175] G. K. Woodgate
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Index Absorption, 139 Action, 247 A
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372 INDEX Nernst equation, 220 Neur
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About the Book Direct Energy Conver
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Direct Energy, 2018a

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