Direct Energy, 2018a

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3 PYROELECTRICS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS 61 Also, electro-optic materials are used inliquid crystal displays [10, ch. 18]. Liquid crystals are electro-optic materials because anexternal voltage alters their material polarization[10, ch. 18]. Electro-optic materials are also used to convert an optical beam at one frequency to an optical beam at a dierent frequency. Second harmonic generation involves converting an optical beam with photons of energy E to a beam with photons at energy 1 E [10, ch. 19] [27, ch. 18] [31, ch. 16]. 2 Electro-optic materials are used in the second harmonic generation process as well as in the related processes of third harmonic generation, three wave mixing, four wave mixing, optical parametric oscillation, and stimulated Ramanscattering [10, ch. 19]. 3.4 Notation Quagmire This text attempts to use notation consistent with the literature. However, consistency is a challenge because every author seems to have a dierent name for the same physical phenomena. Furthermore, the same term used by dierent authors may have completely dierent meanings. For example, as described by Eq. 2.19, in some materials, a mechanical stress induces a material polarizationproportional to the square of that stress. This text calls this phenomenon piezoelectricity, or to be more specic, quadratic piezoelectricity. However, references [3] and [6] call this phenomenon electrostriction. To make matters worse, reference [33] calls this eect ferroelectricity. Some authors make dierent assumptions when using terms too. For example, whenreference [26] uses the term ferroelectricity, it assumes crystalline materials, but it makes no assumptions about whether the eect is linear or not. Table 3.2 summarizes the notationused inthis text to describe energy conversion processes involving material polarization. The rst column lists the name used here to describe the eect. The second column lists what eect causes a material polarization. The third column describes whether the eect occurs incrystals only. The fourth columndescribes whether the material polarization varies linearly or not with the parameter described in the second column. The next column lists references which call this eect ferroelectricity. The last column gives names used by other references to describe this particular phenomenon. The last two columns are quite incomplete because a thorough literature survey was not done. However, these columns show quite a variety to the terminology even for the small fractionof the literature reviewed. You might think that you can avoid confusion of terminology by looking for Greek or Latin roots. While many of the terms introduced in the preced-
62 3.4 Notation Quagmire Notation in this text (Linear) Piezoelectricity (Quadratic) Piezoelectricity Ferroelectric Piezoelectricity (Linear) Pyroelectricity (Quadratic) Pyroelectricity Ferroelectric Pyroelectricity Linear (Pockels) Electro-optic Eect Quadratic (Kerr) Electro-optic Eect Ferroelectric Electro-optic Eect −→ P induced by ... Crystalline? Amorphous? Polycrystalline? Mechanical stress, −→ ς Crystalline Linear Linear? Who calls this ferroelectricity? What others call this quantity Mechanical stress −→ ς Crystalline Quadratic [33] Electrostriction [3, p. 327] [6], photoelasticity [31] Mechanical stress −→ ς All Nonlinear [25, p. 408] Temperature dierential, ΔT Temperature dierential, ΔT Temperature dierential, ΔT Optical Electromag. radiation −→ E Optical Electromag. radiation −→ E Optical Electromag. radiation −→ E Crystalline Linear [26, p. 556], [42, p. 50], [43] Crystalline Quadratic [26, p. 556], [43] All Nonlinear [3, p. 366], [26, p. 556], [43] Thermal nonlinear optical eects [42] Thermal nonlinear optical eects [42] Thermal nonlinear optical eects [42] Crystalline Linear Electronic polarizablility [25, p. 390] Crystalline Quadratic All Nonlinear Photoinduced anisotropy, photodarkening [44] [45], intimate valence alternation pair state [44] Table 3.2: Terminology related to processes involving material polarization.
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Direct Energy Conversion by Andrea
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CONTENTS i Contents Contents i 1 In
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CONTENTS iii 6.3.2 Energy Levels in
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CONTENTS v 9.6 Fuel Cells . . . . .
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Acknowledgements I would like to th
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2 1.2 Preview of Topics to connect
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4 1.2 Preview of Topics Math throug
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6 1.2 Preview of Topics Process Spo
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8 1.2 Preview of Topics drodynamic
Page 21 and 22: 10 1.4 Measures of Power and Energy
Page 23 and 24: 12 1.5 Properties of Materials 1.5
Page 25 and 26: 14 1.5 Properties of Materials most
Page 27 and 28: 16 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves −→
Page 29 and 30: 18 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves Relate
Page 31 and 32: 20 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves A unif
Page 33 and 34: 22 1.7 Problems
Page 35 and 36: 24 2.2 Capacitors 2.2 Capacitors 2.
Page 37 and 38: 26 2.2 Capacitors 2.2.3 Permittivit
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Page 41 and 42: 30 2.2 Capacitors Figure 2.3: Natur
Page 43 and 44: 32 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Piezoe
Page 45 and 46: 34 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices Lattic
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Page 51 and 52: 40 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices c a β
Page 53 and 54: 42 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices In cer
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Page 57 and 58: 46 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices tions.
Page 59 and 60: 48 2.4 Problems 2.5. A piezoelectri
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Page 63 and 64: 52 2.4 Problems 2.16. The gure belo
Page 65 and 66: 54 3.2 Pyroelectricity Material Che
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Page 75 and 76: 64 3.5 Problems 3.5 Problems 3.1. F
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Page 79 and 80: 68 4.1 Introduction Center-fed half
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Page 97 and 98: 86 4.5 Problems Figure 4.6: A snow
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Page 103 and 104: 92 5.2 Physics of the Hall Eect The
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Page 107 and 108: 96 5.3 Magnetohydrodynamics This am
Page 109 and 110: 98 5.5 Applications of Hall Eect De
Page 111 and 112: 100 5.6 Problems 5.6 Problems 5.1.
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Page 115 and 116: 104 6.3 Semiconductors and Energy L
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112 6.3 Semiconductors and Energy L
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120 6.4 Crystallography Revisited L
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122 6.5 Pn Junctions E Indirect Sem
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124 6.5 Pn Junctions an excess of n
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126 6.5 Pn Junctions V x - + Energy
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128 6.6 Solar Cells to day and loca
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130 6.6 Solar Cells dot based mater
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132 6.7 Photodetectors Solar Panel
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134 6.7 Photodetectors 6.7.2 Measur
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6 PHOTOVOLTAICS 137 6.3. The gure i
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 139 7 Lam
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 141 Photo
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 143 Absor
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 145 We ca
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 147 If we
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 149 tube
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 151 easil
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 153 Power
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 155 Two L
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 157 but n
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 159 of ec
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 161 the o
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 163 Ti:Sa
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 165 the b
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 167 Gas D
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 169 categ
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 171 7.8.
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 173 8 Thermoelect
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 175 Symbol Name V
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 177 per unit volu
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 179 kPa, and the
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 181 Seebeck Effec
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 183 gradient acro
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 185 thermocouples
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 187 The gure of m
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 189 or mass invol
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 191 temperatures?
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 193 Figure 8.4: L
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 195 8.9 Problems
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 197 8.8. A thermo
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 199 Figure 8.5 8.
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202 9.2 Measures of the Ability of
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212 9.3 Charge Flow in Batteries an
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214 9.3 Charge Flow in Batteries an
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216 9.4 Measures of Batteries and F
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224 9.5 Battery Types specic energi
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226 9.5 Battery Types at the anode
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228 9.5 Battery Types Figure 9.8: T
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230 9.6 Fuel Cells Fuel cell compon
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232 9.6 Fuel Cells 9.6.3 Practical
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234 9.7 Problems 9.7 Problems 9.1.
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236 9.7 Problems A E - + I B D H 2
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238 10.3 Radiation Detectors high e
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240 10.5 Resistive Sensors capacito
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242 10.6 Electrouidics However, ene
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244 10.6 Electrouidics
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246 11.2 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
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248 11.3 Principle of Least Action
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250 11.4 Derivation of the Euler-La
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252 11.5 Mass Spring Example not in
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254 11.5 Mass Spring Example Path 1
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256 11.5 Mass Spring Example We can
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258 11.6 Capacitor Inductor Example
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260 11.6 Capacitor Inductor Example
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262 11.7 Schrödinger's Equation 11
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264 11.8 Problems 11.4. Figure 11.2
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266 11.8 Problems a famous result k
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268 11.8 Problems (c) Find the gene
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270 12.2 Electrical Energy Conversi
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276 12.3 Mechanical Energy Conversi
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282 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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284 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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286 12.5 Chemical Energy Conversion
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288 12.6 Problems 12.6 Problems 12.
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290 12.6 Problems 12.6. Match the d
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292 13.1 Introduction • Describe
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294 13.2 Preliminary Ideas Assuming
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296 13.3 Derivation of the Lagrangi
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306 13.4 Deriving the Thomas Fermi
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308 13.5 From Thomas Fermi Theory t
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310 13.6 Problems (a) Write the Ham
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312 14.1 Introduction damental equa
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314 14.2 Types of Symmetries be wri
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316 14.3 Continuous Symmetries and
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322 14.4 Derivation of the Innitesi
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330 14.5 Invariants and we end up w
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332 14.5 Invariants in the limit ε
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334 14.5 Invariants Next use Eq. 14
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336 14.6 Summary 14.6 Summary In th
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338 14.7 Problems 14.6. The equatio
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340 14.7 Problems
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342 Appendices Symbol Quantity Unit
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350 Appendices Prex name Symbol Val
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352 Appendices for voltage. (As an
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354 Appendices Material or Device S
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356 REFERENCES [15] E. C. Jordan an
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358 REFERENCES [45] V. K. Tikhomiro
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360 REFERENCES [73] M. G. Thomas, H
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362 REFERENCES [100] A. Ishibashi,
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364 REFERENCES [125] D. Wright, Req
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366 REFERENCES [150] J. P. Owejan,
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368 REFERENCES [175] G. K. Woodgate
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Index Absorption, 139 Action, 247 A
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372 INDEX Nernst equation, 220 Neur
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