Direct Energy, 2018a

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2 CAPACITORS AND PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES 45 Figure 2.10: A piezoelectric transformer that takes an input of 8-14 V and produces and output of up to 2 kV. This picture is used with permission from [35]. Figure 2.11: Example small piezoelectric devices. Clockwise from top left: electret microphone, ultrasonic distance sensor, vibration sensor, oscillator crystal.
46 2.3 Piezoelectric Devices tions. Quartz is piezoelectric, and it is durable, readily available, and nontoxic. Engineers have developed piezoelectric devices designed for use outside of the body and to be implanted inside the body. Some piezoelectric devices are used as sensors. For example, piezoelectric sensors can monitor knees or other joints [3]. Also, ultrasonic imaging is a common diagnostic technique. Piezoelectric devices are used both to generate the ultrasonic vibrations and to detect them[33]. Other biomedical piezoelectric devices are used as a source of electrical power. Articial hearts, pacemakers, and other devices require electricity, and they are often limited by battery technology available to supply the energy [36]. Piezoelectric generators have no moving parts to wear out, and they can avoid the problem of needing to change the batteries. Physical activity can be classied as continuous, such as breathing, or discontinuous, such as walking. Both types of physical activity can be used as a source of mechanical energy for piezoelectric devices [36]. The amount of power required for dierent biomedical devices varies quite a bit. For example, an articial heart may require around 8 W while a pacemaker may require only a few microwatts [36]. Piezoelectric devices may be able to capture energy from typical physical activity and convert it into electrical energy to power the device. A piezoelectric device in an articial knee has produced 0.85 mW [36], and a device in a shoe has generated 8.4 mW from walking [36]. Piezoelectric devices are used in other types of imaging systems besides biomedical imaging systems. One of the earlier applications was in sonar systems. Around the time of WWI, the military actively developed sonar systems to detect boats and submarines. Today, sonar systems are used to detect sh and to measure the depth of bodies of water [33]. Sonar imaging is also used to analyze electrical circuits and to detect imperfections and cracks in steel and in welds [33]. Piezoelectric devices are used in a variety of other applications too. Piezoelectric sensors are used in some buttons and keyboards [36]. Piezoelectric devices are used to make accelerometers [37, p. 353], and they are used to measure pipe ow [33]. Speakers, microphones and buzzers can all be made from piezoelectric devices, and they can operate at both audio and ultrasonic frequencies. Piezoelectric devices that generate ultrasonic signals can be used to emulsify dyes, paints, and food products like peanut butter [33]. Also, they are used in some barbecue grill ignitions where mechanical stress induces an electric spark [23, ch. 15].
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Direct Energy Conversion by Andrea
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CONTENTS i Contents Contents i 1 In
Page 6 and 7: CONTENTS iii 6.3.2 Energy Levels in
Page 8 and 9: CONTENTS v 9.6 Fuel Cells . . . . .
Page 10: Acknowledgements I would like to th
Page 13 and 14: 2 1.2 Preview of Topics to connect
Page 15 and 16: 4 1.2 Preview of Topics Math throug
Page 17 and 18: 6 1.2 Preview of Topics Process Spo
Page 19 and 20: 8 1.2 Preview of Topics drodynamic
Page 21 and 22: 10 1.4 Measures of Power and Energy
Page 23 and 24: 12 1.5 Properties of Materials 1.5
Page 25 and 26: 14 1.5 Properties of Materials most
Page 27 and 28: 16 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves −→
Page 29 and 30: 18 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves Relate
Page 31 and 32: 20 1.6 Electromagnetic Waves A unif
Page 33 and 34: 22 1.7 Problems
Page 35 and 36: 24 2.2 Capacitors 2.2 Capacitors 2.
Page 37 and 38: 26 2.2 Capacitors 2.2.3 Permittivit
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Page 65 and 66: 54 3.2 Pyroelectricity Material Che
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Page 73 and 74: 62 3.4 Notation Quagmire Notation i
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96 5.3 Magnetohydrodynamics This am
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98 5.5 Applications of Hall Eect De
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100 5.6 Problems 5.6 Problems 5.1.
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102 6.2 The Wave and Particle Natur
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104 6.3 Semiconductors and Energy L
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120 6.4 Crystallography Revisited L
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122 6.5 Pn Junctions E Indirect Sem
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124 6.5 Pn Junctions an excess of n
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126 6.5 Pn Junctions V x - + Energy
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128 6.6 Solar Cells to day and loca
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130 6.6 Solar Cells dot based mater
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132 6.7 Photodetectors Solar Panel
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134 6.7 Photodetectors 6.7.2 Measur
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6 PHOTOVOLTAICS 137 6.3. The gure i
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 139 7 Lam
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 141 Photo
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 143 Absor
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 145 We ca
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 147 If we
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 149 tube
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 151 easil
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 153 Power
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 155 Two L
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 157 but n
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 159 of ec
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 161 the o
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 163 Ti:Sa
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 165 the b
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 167 Gas D
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 169 categ
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7 LAMPS, LEDS, AND LASERS 171 7.8.
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 173 8 Thermoelect
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 175 Symbol Name V
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 177 per unit volu
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 179 kPa, and the
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 181 Seebeck Effec
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 183 gradient acro
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 185 thermocouples
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 187 The gure of m
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 189 or mass invol
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 191 temperatures?
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 193 Figure 8.4: L
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 195 8.9 Problems
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 197 8.8. A thermo
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8 THERMOELECTRICS 199 Figure 8.5 8.
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202 9.2 Measures of the Ability of
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212 9.3 Charge Flow in Batteries an
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214 9.3 Charge Flow in Batteries an
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216 9.4 Measures of Batteries and F
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224 9.5 Battery Types specic energi
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226 9.5 Battery Types at the anode
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228 9.5 Battery Types Figure 9.8: T
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230 9.6 Fuel Cells Fuel cell compon
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232 9.6 Fuel Cells 9.6.3 Practical
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234 9.7 Problems 9.7 Problems 9.1.
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236 9.7 Problems A E - + I B D H 2
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238 10.3 Radiation Detectors high e
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240 10.5 Resistive Sensors capacito
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242 10.6 Electrouidics However, ene
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244 10.6 Electrouidics
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246 11.2 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
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248 11.3 Principle of Least Action
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250 11.4 Derivation of the Euler-La
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252 11.5 Mass Spring Example not in
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254 11.5 Mass Spring Example Path 1
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256 11.5 Mass Spring Example We can
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258 11.6 Capacitor Inductor Example
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260 11.6 Capacitor Inductor Example
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262 11.7 Schrödinger's Equation 11
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264 11.8 Problems 11.4. Figure 11.2
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266 11.8 Problems a famous result k
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268 11.8 Problems (c) Find the gene
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270 12.2 Electrical Energy Conversi
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276 12.3 Mechanical Energy Conversi
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282 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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284 12.4 Thermodynamic Energy Conve
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286 12.5 Chemical Energy Conversion
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288 12.6 Problems 12.6 Problems 12.
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290 12.6 Problems 12.6. Match the d
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292 13.1 Introduction • Describe
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294 13.2 Preliminary Ideas Assuming
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296 13.3 Derivation of the Lagrangi
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306 13.4 Deriving the Thomas Fermi
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308 13.5 From Thomas Fermi Theory t
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310 13.6 Problems (a) Write the Ham
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312 14.1 Introduction damental equa
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314 14.2 Types of Symmetries be wri
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316 14.3 Continuous Symmetries and
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322 14.4 Derivation of the Innitesi
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330 14.5 Invariants and we end up w
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332 14.5 Invariants in the limit ε
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334 14.5 Invariants Next use Eq. 14
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336 14.6 Summary 14.6 Summary In th
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338 14.7 Problems 14.6. The equatio
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340 14.7 Problems
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342 Appendices Symbol Quantity Unit
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350 Appendices Prex name Symbol Val
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352 Appendices for voltage. (As an
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354 Appendices Material or Device S
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356 REFERENCES [15] E. C. Jordan an
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358 REFERENCES [45] V. K. Tikhomiro
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360 REFERENCES [73] M. G. Thomas, H
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362 REFERENCES [100] A. Ishibashi,
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364 REFERENCES [125] D. Wright, Req
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366 REFERENCES [150] J. P. Owejan,
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368 REFERENCES [175] G. K. Woodgate
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Index Absorption, 139 Action, 247 A
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372 INDEX Nernst equation, 220 Neur
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Direct Energy, 2018a

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