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what percentage of tourism revenue accrues to or otherwise benefits local communities in and around tourist destinations. If leakage nationally may be in excess of 50%, then local leakage is likely to be extremely high, due to imports, changes in land ownership, the ownership of operations by outside concerns, and an influx of labour. For example, in Grindewald, a resort in Berner Oberland, in 1982 only 12 out of 75 jobs in tourism were filled by locals (Mueller 1991), while in Santa Cruz Bay, Mexico, only 27% of the labour construction force on a tourism development were locals (Long 1991). The private sector: can be an important source of funding for development of tourism projects. In developing appropriate facilities and services outside, or even within a protected area the private sector will improve the quality of visitor experience and thereby increase visitor numbers. Without private sector involvement the protected area management and local communities may on one hand be unable to obtain sufficient start-up funding for tourist facilities, and on the other hand may not have the expertise to run effective tourist promotion and other operations. Partnerships with the private sector, with control over the scale and nature of tourism being held by the protected area and local community management structures, may be essential. Social benefits Social changes associated with ecotourism will affect three factors. a) Employment opportunities will increase, both within the protected area and within the surrounding community. These employment opportunities may relate directly to the provision of tourism-related services, such as tour guides, or may be possible through increased tourism revenue. b) Improved local economy will combine with the development of infrastructure and services to support tourist visitors and will have the effect of improving local living standards. For example, local residents will benefit from such things as improved roads, reliable supplies of clean water and access to modern health services, even though the development of these was prompted by tourism. Improved living standards will reduce reliance on natural resources within and around a protected area, will further strengthen local support for the reserve. c) Cultural support. If sensitively developed, in some areas ecotourism may be a stimulus for a revival in traditional arts and craft. Support and encouragement of local culture may be a key part of the characteristics of a protected area, particularly a category V Protected Landscape, the conservation of which can be as important to maintaining the character of the area as protecting the plants, animals and scenery. Public Awareness and Education benefits Ecotourism in association with a protected area provides the means to improve public awareness of conservation issues within three target groups. a) Tourists: Access to the protected area should be in conjunction with learning opportunities. These may take place within a visitor centre setting, with interpretive displays within the area, or through talks and guided walks. b) Local communities: Increased support for a protected area due to increased financial benefits is only part of the goal. Opportunities will exist whereby local communities too can gain a greater understanding of conservation issues and methods and thereby support may be sustained even in the face of fluctuating tourist revenue. c) Regionally/Nationally: Since tourists can be domestic as well as international, environmental public awareness associated with ecotourism operation in and around a protected area may raise national awareness and therefore national level support of conservation issues. Conservation benefits Tourism impacts must be minimised and the protected area authority must retain ultimate control over tourism development within, and if possible, around the reserve. However, having numbers of environmentally sensitive and aware visitors within a protected area may increase protection. Visitors may act as unofficial rangers, reporting 15
infringements, environmental damage or other management problems, or even just acting as wildlife observers to provide information on the status and distribution of key species. With increased local community appreciation of and support for the protected area there may be a decrease in poaching and other violations, and prevention of such impacts may become more a community concern. In a wider sense, community support for the protected area and awareness of the need to conserve natural resources to maintain tourist revenue will steer development since tourism would effectively be one development option. Without ecotourism the protected area may become threatened by unsustainable development along its boundaries. Does the above list of benefits sound familiar? It mirrors the challenges facing protected areas under the new management paradigm of sustainable development, as outlined earlier. So, is that our answer? Will ecotourism solve all the problems of protected areas? Not quite that simple. Protected areas are inherently sensitive sites; increased visitor levels will have inevitable negative impacts at a number of levels. Such impacts may be direct, arising from the presence of the tourists, or indirect, due to the infrastructure supporting the industry (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996). These negative impacts can lead to environmental degradation, economic inequity, and sociological change (reviewed in Boo 1990; Ceballos-Lascurain 1996; Roe et al. 1997; and references therein). Impacts of Tourism Environmental impacts Local scale impacts may be divided into indirect impacts, caused by the infrastructure created to support tourism, and direct impacts caused by the presence of tourists themselves (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996). Indirect impacts will be in common with any form of development and may include loss of natural habitats, changes in flora and fauna in disturbed areas, changes to water catchments and water-flow patterns, increased erosion following loss of stabilising vegetation, site levelling and quarrying, and increased pollution from fumes, waste, noise and light. Direct impacts include impacts on minerals, fossils and soils, impacts on water resources, vegetation and animals, and sanitation and aesthetic impacts (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996). The degree to which visitors have an impact on the natural environment will vary according to the number, sensitivity and activities of the visitors. High volumes of even well-meaning tourists may exceed environmental carrying capacities and inflict damage through repetition, for instance, compacting and erosion of soil along trails. The Galapagos National Park attract people who are interested in seeing wildlife and are sensitive to its vulnerability; however damage has been inflicted on the Park due to quota revision which allowed 25,000 visitors, rather than the 12,000 visitor-limit necessary to avoid major impacts (Alderman 1994); actual visitor numbers reached nearly 42,000 in 1989 (Wallace 1993). Canadian National Parks (Guardian) Social and Cultural Impacts Social and cultural effects of tourism include unsustainable changes in the structure of local economies, in particular reliance on tourist dollars and therefore increased vulnerability to changing patterns of tourism due to a number of factors, including the following. ♦ Local changes in tourist volumes or movements, e.g. when a walking track in the Annapurna area of Nepal was upgraded for vehicles the numbers of visitors moving through the area on foot dwindled almost to nothing (Garforth 1994). With the road able to be covered in a matter of hours rather than 2-3 days, trekkers no longer needed to find food and accommodation along the way. Consequently the local people, who had grown to rely on revenue from providing these services to tourists, were effectively out of business. 16
Page 1 and 2: The Unfenced Desert
Page 3 and 4: Institute of Earth Studies Universi
Page 5 and 6: 4 SUMMARY The Unfenced Desert Towar
Page 7 and 8: from human use in order to conserve
Page 9 and 10: Chapter two reviews global changes
Page 11 and 12: Chapter seven sets out the framewor
Page 13 and 14: In 1987 the report of the World Com
Page 15: and more succinctly by the Ecotouri
Page 19: • policies for the development of
Page 22 and 23: “Because of the abundance and exc
Page 24 and 25: Political, economic, social and env
Page 26 and 27: Arabian Standard Oil Company), stru
Page 28 and 29: ustard Chlamydotis [undulata] macqu
Page 30 and 31: would be declared annually during t
Page 32 and 33: Al Khunfah Protected Area The over
Page 34 and 35: • Decreased application of strict
Page 36 and 37: the attitudes and awareness of a sa
Page 38 and 39: the Asir the number one summer holi
Page 40 and 41: government tourism body to co-ordin
Page 42 and 43: The next chapter looks in more deta
Page 44 and 45: Chapter 5. Public attitudes to wild
Page 46 and 47: sent copies of the questionnaire fo
Page 48 and 49: animals was chosen by 41% and 39%,
Page 50 and 51: There was little variation in the p
Page 52 and 53: Falcon 6.3% Cheetah 1.5% Camel 1.1%
Page 54 and 55: • not necessarily entail overnigh
Page 56 and 57: median 4. A total of 189 people ans
Page 58 and 59: Overall, 62% of people used private
Page 60 and 61: through the news media and may sugg
Page 62 and 63: accommodation. During vacations tou
Page 64 and 65: Each protected area can them be ass
Page 66 and 67:
3 = basic facilities absent, but re
Page 68 and 69:
Summary of Tourism Development Asse
Page 70 and 71:
♦ Farasan Islands Summary Assessm
Page 72 and 73:
♦ Ibex Reserve Summary Assessment
Page 74 and 75:
♦ Mahazat as-Sayd Summary Assessm
Page 76 and 77:
♦ National Wildlife Research Cent
Page 78 and 79:
Ranking 4/12 Category Group 1: High
Page 80 and 81:
♦ `Uruq Bani Ma’arid Summary As
Page 82 and 83:
Area Rank Key Spp. Season Potential
Page 84 and 85:
departments of Planning and Protect
Page 86 and 87:
guides. The NCWCD should additional
Page 88 and 89:
• Tourism revenue should aid the
Page 90 and 91:
Topic 2: Training Questions to be a
Page 92 and 93:
• Universities Suggested structur
Page 94 and 95:
Other linkages: • Private sector
Page 96 and 97:
• It is necessary to ensure that
Page 98 and 99:
APPENDIX Review of NCWCD Wildlife P
Page 100 and 101:
Date of creation = year of creation
Page 102 and 103:
PA Infrastructure Border demarcatio
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Protected Area Al-Khunfah Administr
Page 106 and 107:
permanent concrete structure based
Page 108 and 109:
Protected Area At-Tubayq Administra
Page 110 and 111:
during these period should be minim
Page 112 and 113:
Nearest national sealed road : The
Page 114 and 115:
Protected Area Farasan Islands Admi
Page 116 and 117:
and humid in summer, spring - winte
Page 118 and 119:
Nearest towns (150 km radius) : Far
Page 120 and 121:
Protected Area Harrat al-Harrah Adm
Page 122 and 123:
eastern Cape in southern Africa. It
Page 124 and 125:
Other patrols : The NCWCD Aviation
Page 126 and 127:
Cultural/historical : 3 Facilities
Page 128 and 129:
Cultural Features Traditional uses
Page 130 and 131:
Potential activities : Driven tours
Page 132 and 133:
dorcas, reem and idmi gazelles, and
Page 134 and 135:
Sensitivity / security : Safe for v
Page 136 and 137:
The area’s designation allows for
Page 138 and 139:
Key seasons : Re-established houbar
Page 140 and 141:
Local communities involvement : Som
Page 142 and 143:
Protected Area Majami’ al-Hadb Ad
Page 144 and 145:
Threats to integrity : Unregulated
Page 146 and 147:
Protected Area National Wildlife Re
Page 148 and 149:
Responsibilities : Captive-breeding
Page 150 and 151:
Wildlife : 1 Cultural/historical :
Page 152 and 153:
151 Water : Some permanent water se
Page 154 and 155:
Other Stakeholders Local community
Page 156 and 157:
155
Page 158 and 159:
Cultural Features Traditional uses
Page 160 and 161:
Administrative features Category :
Page 162 and 163:
Ranger chain of command : Day-to-da
Page 164 and 165:
Category Group 1: High priority for
Page 166 and 167:
Child & Grainger 1990; Fisher et al
Page 168 and 169:
167 Al-Dubyani, A. 2000. Kingdom to
Page 170 and 171:
169 Child, G. 1989. Socio-economic
Page 172 and 173:
171 Green, A. A. 1984b. Wildlife re
Page 174 and 175:
173 Richter, L. K. (Eds). Tourism E
Page 176 and 177:
175 Powell, E. A. 1999. Saudi Arabi
Page 178 and 179:
177 Seddon, P. J., Abuzinada, A. H.
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