Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors

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150 Chapter 4: Nano Fabrication and Patterning Techniques Dissolution-condensation and solution-liquid-solid (SLS) These methods differ from gas phase processes in that the growth media is a liquid. The growth species are dissolved in a liquid and then deposited onto the surface via chemical reactions. These methods will be described in detail in the following sections. 4.3.3 Segmented One-Dimensional Structured Thin Films One-dimensional light-emitting diodes, lasers, complementary and diode logic devices, Peltier modules, which are made of stacks of n- and ptype semiconducting materials, will be the base of efficient transducers in the near future. Utilizing the current technologies, it is possible to fabricate segmented one-dimensional structures. There are many methods available for the fabrication of such layered structures. Methods such as molecular beam epitaxial depostion and different types of chemical vapour deposition techniques, which will be described in the following sections, are ideal for this task as they can be used for the deposition of layers on the atomic scale. It is possible to synthesize segmented one-dimensional semiconductors such as one dimensional superlattices, by either using the one-dimensional structures as templates or modifying the techniques that have been described in the previous sections (e.g. by alternating the deposition materials), As can be seen in Fig. 4.11, Gudiksen et al fabricated one-dimensional superlattices by repeated modulation of the vapour-phase semiconductor reactants during the growth. 37 Fig. 4.11 (a) A nanocluster catalyst nucleates and directs the one-dimensional growth of a semiconductor nanowire growth with the catalyst remaining at the terminating end of the nanowire. (b) Upon completion of the first growth step, a different material can be grown from the end of the nanowire. (c) Repetition of steps (a) and (b) leads to a compositional superlattice within a single nanowire. Reprinted with permission from the Nature publications. 37
4.4 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 4.4 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 151 PVD encompasses a group of vacuum techniques used for depositing thin films of different materials onto various substrates by physical means. In general, it can be categorized into the following groups: • Evaporation • Sputtering • Ion plating • Pulsed laser deposition (laser ablation) In a PVD process, the material to be deposited is placed in an energetic environment. This energetic environment evaporates the source material in the forms of particles such as molecules and ions. The escaping particles are directed towards the surface of a substrate. This substrate surface draws energy from these particles as they arrive, allowing them to form nucleation sites or thin layers. The whole system is kept in a vacuum chamber, which allows the particles to travel as freely as possible, arriving on the surface with a high energy promoting adhesion. The vacuum also encourages a thin film deposition free from the contaminants interferences. 4.4.1 Evaporation Evaporation is one of the most common methods of thin film deposition. Although it is one of the oldest physical techniques, it is still widely used in the laboratory and in industry. In this process, a vapor is generated by evaporating or subliming a source material, which is subsequently condensed as a solid film on a substrate. A broad range of materials, with different reactivity and vapor pressures, can be used in this technique. In addition, a large diversity of source components such as resistance-heated filaments, electron beams, crucibles heated by conduction, radiation, RF-induction, arcs, exploding wires, and lasers can be employed. The following details of some of the most commonly used evaporation techniques. Thermal evaporation In thermal evaporation, the target material is melted and evaporated or sublimed using an electric resistance heater. In this process, the vapor pressure in the chamber (Fig. 4.12) is raised from the initially very low pressure to one that allows the material to be deposited on the substrate.
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Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors
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Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh RMIT Univers
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Acknowledgments We have been fortun
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viii Contents Chapter 3: Transducti
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x Contents 5.7.1 Scanning Electron
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xii Contents 7.5 Nano-sensors based
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2 Chapter 1: Introduction Nobel lau
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4 Chapter 1: Introduction Fig. 1.2
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6 Chapter 1: Introduction ensure th
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8 Chapter 1: Introduction ments, th
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10 Chapter 1: Introduction aim is t
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12 Chapter 1: Introduction Referenc
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14 Chapter 2: Sensor Characteristic
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64 Chapter 3: Transduction Platform
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200 Chapter 4: Nano Fabrication and
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212 Chapter 5: Characterization Tec
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Chapter 6: Inorganic Nanotechnology
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6.2 Density and Number of States 28
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2 6.2 Density and Number of States
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6.3 Gas Sensing with Nanostructured
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6.3.7 Surface Modification 6.3 Gas
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This is the dispersion relation for
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6.4 Phonons in Low Dimensional Stru
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335 vibrational degrees of freedom
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337 ing ballistic transport of elec
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339 Fig. 6.36 Nanoresonators made o
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6.5 Nanotechnology Enabled Mechanic
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6.6 Nanotechnology Enabled Optical
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6.7 Magnetically Engineered Spintro
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ferromagnetic haematite (a form of
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References 365 21 E. Comini, G. Fag
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References 367 58 D. E. Williams an
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References 369 96 J. J. Shi, Y. F.
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Chapter 7: Organic Nanotechnology E
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7.2 Surface Interactions 373 can be
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7.2 Surface Interactions 375 Carbox
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7.2 Surface Interactions 377 Fig. 7
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7.2 Surface Interactions 379 There
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Fig. 7.12 The schematic of physical
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Fig. 7.13 Formation of SAMs. 7.2 Su
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7.2 Surface Interactions 385 ple, t
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7.3 Surface Materials and Surface M
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7.4 Proteins in Nanotechnology Enab
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7.4.4 Using Proteins as Nanodevices
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Fig. 7.36 The general structure of
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+ 7.4 Proteins in Nanotechnology En
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7.5 Nano-sensors based on Nucleotid
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Fig. 7.57 The structure of DNA stra
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.8 Biomagnetic Sensors 7.8 Biomagn
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7.9 Summary 471 metal oxides, carbo
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References 473 19 T. Kunitake, Ange
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63 J. X. Huang, S. Virji, B. H. Wei
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References 477 105 M. Plomer, G. G.
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References 479 145 R. F. Service, S
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7.8 References 481 185 J. Wang, D.
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Remote plasma enhanced CVD (RPECVD)
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Thin film equivalent circuit ... 32
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Optical waveguides ................
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Semiconductor-semiconductor junctio
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About the Authors Dr. Kourosh Kalan
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