Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors

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6.3 Gas Sensing with Nanostructured Thin Films 329 Fig. 6.31 Stages of structure transformation of In2O3 films during thermal treatment. Reprinted with permission from the Elsevier publications. 66 Fig. 6.32 Influence of annealing on AFM images of In2O3 films: (a) 500°C, (b) 600°C, (c) 800°C, (d) 900°C, (e) 1000°C and (f) 1100°C. Reprinted with permission from the Elsevier publications. 66 6.4 Phonons in Low Dimensional Structures A phonon is a quantized mode of vibration occurring in a rigid crystal lattice. Phonons can scatter electrons and interact with photons. They play an important role in the electrical and thermal conductivity of micro/nano devices. Similar to electrons, phonons can be confined within the low
330 Chapter 6: Inorganic Nanotechnology Enabled Sensors dimensions of nanostructures. The dynamics of phonons confined in quantum dimensions differ from their non-confined counterparts. Phonons are responsible for transferring mechanical energy. Mechanical sensors, thermoelectric devices and many optical measurement systems are based on the function of phonons. Phonon vibrations affect atomic structures and electrons. Interactions of phonons with photons, atomic structures and electrons can be used in sensing applications and also they can be effectively used as sensing elements. For instance, a direct application of phonons in sensing technologies appears in acoustic phonon pulse spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. However, the effects of phonons can be unfavourable for in dimensional structures as they can broaden the spectrum of electromagnetic measurements and add electronic noise. 6.4.1 Phonons in One-Dimensional Structures The simplest one-dimensional structure is made of similar atoms (monoatomic) connected in series as shown in Fig. 6.33. Despite the simplicity, such a structure is a good example to understand the behavior of phonons, propagation of waves and dispersion relationships. This understanding can then be expanded to visualize more complex structures. Let’s assume a one-dimensional lattice with the lattice constant equal to a. When a force is exerted on the lattice the whole system moves with the same frequency. Now, let’s consider that the system consists of N atoms and the force applied to the n th atom is only due to neighboring atoms. If harmonic approximation (it assumes that force is proportional to relative displacement), Hooke’s law and the inter-atomic force constant α are used we will obtain: 2 2 d un M = −α ( 2u − 1 1) 2 n un+ − un− , (6.58) dt where un is the displacement of the n th particle, M is the mass of the atom and t is time. To solve the Eq. (6.64), n coupled equations for the N atoms in the system would have to be solved simultaneously. With a solution in i( kxn −ωt ) the form of Ae (xn the location of the n th atom) the result can be written as: 2 1/ 2 4 sin( ka / 2) M ⎟ ⎛ ⎞ = ⎜ ⎝ ⎠ α ω . (6.59)
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Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors
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Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh RMIT Univers
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Acknowledgments We have been fortun
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viii Contents Chapter 3: Transducti
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x Contents 5.7.1 Scanning Electron
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xii Contents 7.5 Nano-sensors based
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2 Chapter 1: Introduction Nobel lau
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4 Chapter 1: Introduction Fig. 1.2
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6 Chapter 1: Introduction ensure th
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8 Chapter 1: Introduction ments, th
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10 Chapter 1: Introduction aim is t
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12 Chapter 1: Introduction Referenc
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14 Chapter 2: Sensor Characteristic
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64 Chapter 3: Transduction Platform
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136 Chapter 4: Nano Fabrication and
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212 Chapter 5: Characterization Tec
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Page 296 and 297: 6.2 Density and Number of States 28
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Page 368 and 369: 6.7 Magnetically Engineered Spintro
Page 374 and 375: ferromagnetic haematite (a form of
Page 376 and 377: References 365 21 E. Comini, G. Fag
Page 378 and 379: References 367 58 D. E. Williams an
Page 380 and 381: References 369 96 J. J. Shi, Y. F.
Page 382 and 383: Chapter 7: Organic Nanotechnology E
Page 384 and 385: 7.2 Surface Interactions 373 can be
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7.2 Surface Interactions 379 There
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Fig. 7.12 The schematic of physical
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Fig. 7.13 Formation of SAMs. 7.2 Su
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7.2 Surface Interactions 385 ple, t
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7.4 Proteins in Nanotechnology Enab
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7.4.4 Using Proteins as Nanodevices
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Fig. 7.36 The general structure of
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7.5 Nano-sensors based on Nucleotid
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Fig. 7.57 The structure of DNA stra
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.8 Biomagnetic Sensors 7.8 Biomagn
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7.9 Summary 471 metal oxides, carbo
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References 473 19 T. Kunitake, Ange
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63 J. X. Huang, S. Virji, B. H. Wei
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References 477 105 M. Plomer, G. G.
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References 479 145 R. F. Service, S
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7.8 References 481 185 J. Wang, D.
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Remote plasma enhanced CVD (RPECVD)
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Thin film equivalent circuit ... 32
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Optical waveguides ................
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About the Authors Dr. Kourosh Kalan
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