Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors

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188 Chapter 4: Nano Fabrication and Patterning Techniques leaves the substrate with only the film which was deposited directly onto it. Limiting factors for achieving high resolution patterning are the wavelength of the light that is used in the photolithography process, and the diffraction caused by the mask and photolithography system. At present, deep ultraviolet (DUV) light with wavelengths of 250 and 190 nm are utilized. This allows feature sizes down to 50 nm. The current commercial standard for photolithographic system is 193 nm DUV. The absolute resolution limit in a photolithographic system is given by a quarter-wavelength divided by the numerical aperture (NA). 74 The NA is equal to nsinθ, where n is the refractive index of the media in which the lens of the photolithographic mask is placed, and θ is the half-angle of the maximum cone of light that can enter or exit the lens. For a system with lenses operating in air, NA is equal to 1. This will limit the feature size to approximately 50 nm for a 200 nm wavelength. It is possible, to achieve feature sizes less than 50 nm using DUV light together with liquid immersion techniques, which involve immersing the optics and samples in a liquid. This enables the use of optics with NAs exceeding 1. In this technique, deionised water is typically used as the photolithographic media, as it has a refractive index equal to 1.35, which is higher than that of air (n = 1). This will allow the effective NA to be increased which enhances the resolution without changing the light source. Features sizes less than 30 nm have been reported by researchers at IBM using this technique with a standard wavelength of 193 nm. 75 Another new alternative is extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUV) . EUV lithography systems are currently under development. 74 They employ 13.5 nm wavelengths, which is approaching X-rays wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, the biggest challenges in lens production for EUV remains in producing very flat mirrors (aberration free) and accurate lenses (or magnetic reflectors and lenses) with defect free coatings, and thermal management systems ensuring accurate imaging.
Fig. 4.42 The main processes in the photolithography. 4.9 Nanolithography and Nano-Patterning 189
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Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors
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Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh RMIT Univers
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Acknowledgments We have been fortun
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viii Contents Chapter 3: Transducti
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x Contents 5.7.1 Scanning Electron
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xii Contents 7.5 Nano-sensors based
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2 Chapter 1: Introduction Nobel lau
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4 Chapter 1: Introduction Fig. 1.2
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6 Chapter 1: Introduction ensure th
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8 Chapter 1: Introduction ments, th
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10 Chapter 1: Introduction aim is t
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12 Chapter 1: Introduction Referenc
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14 Chapter 2: Sensor Characteristic
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64 Chapter 3: Transduction Platform
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100 Chapter 3: Transduction Platfor
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136 Chapter 4: Nano Fabrication and
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238 Chapter 5: Characterization Tec
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Chapter 6: Inorganic Nanotechnology
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6.2 Density and Number of States 28
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2 6.2 Density and Number of States
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6.3 Gas Sensing with Nanostructured
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6.3.7 Surface Modification 6.3 Gas
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This is the dispersion relation for
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6.4 Phonons in Low Dimensional Stru
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335 vibrational degrees of freedom
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337 ing ballistic transport of elec
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339 Fig. 6.36 Nanoresonators made o
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6.5 Nanotechnology Enabled Mechanic
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6.6 Nanotechnology Enabled Optical
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6.7 Magnetically Engineered Spintro
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ferromagnetic haematite (a form of
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References 365 21 E. Comini, G. Fag
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References 367 58 D. E. Williams an
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References 369 96 J. J. Shi, Y. F.
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Chapter 7: Organic Nanotechnology E
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7.2 Surface Interactions 373 can be
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7.2 Surface Interactions 375 Carbox
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7.2 Surface Interactions 377 Fig. 7
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7.2 Surface Interactions 379 There
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Fig. 7.12 The schematic of physical
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Fig. 7.13 Formation of SAMs. 7.2 Su
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7.2 Surface Interactions 385 ple, t
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7.3 Surface Materials and Surface M
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7.4 Proteins in Nanotechnology Enab
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7.4.4 Using Proteins as Nanodevices
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Fig. 7.36 The general structure of
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+ 7.4 Proteins in Nanotechnology En
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7.5 Nano-sensors based on Nucleotid
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Fig. 7.57 The structure of DNA stra
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.6 Sensors Based on Molecules with
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7.8 Biomagnetic Sensors 7.8 Biomagn
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7.9 Summary 471 metal oxides, carbo
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References 473 19 T. Kunitake, Ange
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63 J. X. Huang, S. Virji, B. H. Wei
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References 477 105 M. Plomer, G. G.
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References 479 145 R. F. Service, S
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7.8 References 481 185 J. Wang, D.
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Remote plasma enhanced CVD (RPECVD)
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Thin film equivalent circuit ... 32
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Optical waveguides ................
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Semiconductor-semiconductor junctio
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About the Authors Dr. Kourosh Kalan
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