Proceedings of the International Cyanide Detection Testing Workshop

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The Analysis of Cyanide and its Metabolites in Biological Samples Introduction Cyanide is toxic in humans, animals, and fi sh and exposure can occur in various ways. Many substances are potential sources of cyanide exposure including edible and nonedible plants, industrial operations, fi res, and cigarette smoke. Although the primary natural source of cyanide poisoning is from plants (1-7), other natural sources include volcanoes, bacteria, and fungi (1, 8-13). Manmade sources include malfunctioning catalytic converters, residential and commercial fi res involving the burning of plastics, cigarette smoke, as well as illicit uses of cyanide (14). Additionally, hundreds of thousands of tons of cyanide are manufactured annually in the U.S. alone for industrial uses, including chemical syntheses, electroplating, plastics processing, paint manufacturing, gold and silver extraction, tanning, and metallurgy. Along with many legal industrial uses of cyanide, multiple illegal uses of cyanide exist. Recently, terrorist acts involving cyanide have been the most publicized illicit uses of cyanide. In 1982, cyanide was placed in bottles Brian A. Logue and Diane M. Hinkens Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry South Dakota State University brian.logue@sdstate.edu Cyanide is a toxic chemical that may be introduced to living organisms as a result of both legal and illicit uses of cyanide. Exposure to cyanide can be verifi ed by analyzing cyanide or one of its break-down products from biological samples. This verifi cation is important for medical, law-enforcement, forensic, research, and veterinary purposes. This review will identify common problems associated with the analysis of cyanide and its metabolites, discuss current bioanalytical techniques used for verifi cation of cyanide exposure, and briefl y address the metabolism and toxicokinetics of cyanide and its break-down products in biological systems. 70 of Tylenol in the Chicago area, killing seven people (1). In 1995 in Tokyo, an acid and a cyanide salt were found in several subway restrooms in the weeks following the release of nerve agents (2). Another illegal use of cyanide is the capture of fi sh for subsequent sale in the live fi sh trade (15). Cyanide is used at sub-lethal doses to temporarily stun fi sh, making them easier to catch (16). The practice of using cyanide in this manner has been found in a number of countries, and has an adverse affect on coral reefs (15). The cyanide is toxic to algae that are necessary for coral to survive and also produces many adverse secondary effects, such as killing smaller fi sh species. With this and other destructive practices used during capture of cyanide stunned fi sh, irreversible damage to coral reefs has and continues to occur (17). As industrial and illicit applications of cyanide increase, the need for rapid, sensitive, and specifi c analytical methods to assess cyanide exposure will be amplifi ed. The goals for this review are to briefl y discuss current bioanalytical techniques used for verifi cation
of cyanide exposure and to identify common problems associated with the analysis of cyanide and its metabolites in biological samples. This review does not include methods to test for cyanide in environmental or industrial matrices (e.g., surface waters, minerals, process streams). A number of related reviews have been published (8, 15, 18-22). NH 2 S N Cyanide metabolism and toxicokinetics Although there are other chemical forms of cyanide, it is hydrogen cyanide (HCN) that is the primary toxic agent, regardless of its origin. The toxic effects of cyanide can be traced to interference of aerobic metabolism (18). This occurs when cyanide blocks terminal electron transfer by binding to cytochrome oxidase for both mammals and fi sh (18, 23). For mammals, cyanide ion (CN - ) is acquired through ingestion while hydrogen cyanide is acquired through inhalation or absorption through the mucous membranes or skin. For fi sh, cyanide is absorbed through the gills or intestine (15). Little is known about the metabolism of cyanide in fi sh, and more research is necessary to fully understand the similarities and differences of mammals and fi sh, but considering that cyanide’s toxic effects are similar in both mammals and fi sh, a number of metabolic pathways may also be similar. As the majority of research on cyanide metabolism has been done on NH S NH OH ATCA ITCA O + Cystine O rhodanese SCN - HCN/CN - Cyanocobalamin + S donor + Hydroxocobalamin Protein Adducts HCNO CO 2 Figure 1. Human metabolism of cyanide. 71 OH (Vitamin B 12 ) HCOOH (Metabolized as other one carbon compounds) humans, the following text summarizes cyanide metabolism in humans. Once absorbed, cyanide is quickly transferred to the blood and metabolized through a number of processes, as shown in Figure 1. The major pathway for cyanide metabolism is conversion of cyanide to thiocyanate (SCN - ) in the presence of a sulfur donor (e.g., thiosulfate) (24). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme rhodanese (18, 25, 26). About 80% of the initial cyanide dose is converted to thiocyanate, which is subsequently excreted in the urine. Other minor metabolic
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Proceedings of the International Cy
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Proceedings of the Cyanide Detectio
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Proceedings of
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PREFACE The International Cyanide D
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The International
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ATCA) in homogenized fi sh tissue m
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Validation of the ISE method applie
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Importing countries should also req
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INTRODUCTION Cyanide fi shing is a
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through the implementation of a net
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Working Group 2 The Export Working
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o o o o Can the U.S. require verifi
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Polymeric membrane based ion select
Page 29 and 30: Goal 2: Provide recommendations on
Page 31 and 32: hands-on training that develops a d
Page 33 and 34: Goal 3: Identify research needs to
Page 35 and 36: Working Group 1 Participants Bob KO
Page 37 and 38: estimated at roughly 3 to 5 days. H
Page 39 and 40: Goal 2 : Identify steps, agreements
Page 41 and 42: 3) certifi cate, but tests positive
Page 43 and 44: Report from Working Group 3 The Par
Page 45 and 46: No. of Shipments 6,000 5,000 4,000
Page 47 and 48: Goal 3: Provide a recommendation wi
Page 49: Working Group 3 Participants Eric P
Page 53 and 54: Introduction Since the early 1960
Page 55 and 56: ainbow trout exposed to 40 mg SCN -
Page 57 and 58: Blennies, which were net-caught and
Page 59 and 60: electrical potential (similar to an
Page 61 and 62: in the Philippines under contract w
Page 63 and 64: endorsing the IMA’s use of the IS
Page 65 and 66: The intended products from the rese
Page 67 and 68: WPCF 1992, 1998). Both of these stu
Page 69 and 70: ASTM (1997) Standard test methods f
Page 71 and 72: Kuegsen, M., Kloock, J.P., Knobbe,
Page 73 and 74: Philippines. In Proceedings from th
Page 75 and 76: 3) 4) 5) 6) the metabolism of cyani
Page 77 and 78: or new matrices. 5.2.3 Modifi catio
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Page 83 and 84: Special considerations for the anal
Page 85 and 86: tissue samples indispensable. Altho
Page 87 and 88: y reduction and subsequent separati
Page 89 and 90: can also be used for analysis of cy
Page 91 and 92: thiocyanate in saliva and serum bas
Page 93 and 94: are many discrepancies in the liter
Page 95 and 96: Table 3. Analytical Methods to dete
Page 97 and 98: Poisoning, In Textbook of military
Page 99 and 100: (70) Odoul, M., Fouillet, B., Nouri
Page 101 and 102: V. (1975) Stable reagents for the c
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Page 105 and 106: Purpose of this Document The purpos
Page 107 and 108: day. One cyanide tablet (2 g) is mi
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Page 111 and 112: existing cyanide detection methods
Page 113 and 114: - Plasma lactate — elevated plasm
Page 115 and 116: Method Advantages Disadvantages Hig
Page 117 and 118: Paper Method Matrix Detection Limit
Page 119 and 120: Table 4 lists experts identifi ed t
Page 121 and 122: X Jerry Thomas CDC Em Steve Borron
Page 123 and 124: References Barber, C. and Pratt, V.
Page 125 and 126: Rates of Recovery. Environmental Ma
Page 127: COUNTRY REPORTS
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The first three of these destructiv
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enforcement is minimal. There is an
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1. Management/guidance to the Minis
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in Vietnam now and requires more ef
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Figure 2: Administrative structure
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References Baquero, J. (1999) Marin
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Acronyms • CDT • Cyanide Detect
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Law/Ordinance/Decree /Decision 52/2
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of samples required for analysis. U
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Field test kit. BFAR recognizes the
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Political Will Having planted the s
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gravely by fi shing communities. Th
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ecome the partner and counterpart o
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Ion-Selective Electrodes for Cyanid
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References Alban, J., Manipula, B.E
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levels with mV readings recorded as
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Trends Determined by Cyanide Testin
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Implementing agencies: • Quaranti
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APPENDIX
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1:30 Overview of and Potential Cyan
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Kristine Johnson Director Kingfi sh
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Assessment of U.S. Role in Trade: U
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