Appendices & Glossary - Botanical Research Institute of Texas

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1170 APPENDIX FIVE/TAXONOMY, CLASSIFICATION, AND THE DEBATE ABOUT CLADISTICS FIG. 176/DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF POLYPHYLETIC, MONOPHYLETIC, AND PARAPHYLETIC GROUPS. FIGURE PRODUCED BY BRIT/AUSTIN COLLEGE; RE- PRODUCTION OF THIS IMAGE DOES NOT REQUIRE COPYRIGHT PERMISSION.
TAXONOMY, CLASSIFICATION, AND THE DEBATE ABOUT CLADISTICS/APPENDIX FIVE 1171 its descendants) should be given taxonomic recognition (Fig. 176). These groupings should be based on shared derived characteristics or character states, which are referred to as synapomorphies. Every organism is a mosaic of ancestral characteristics (= pleisomorphies) inherited with little or no change from some remote ancestor and derived characteristics (= apomorphies), which reflect more recent evolutionary change (Futuyma 1986). Apomorphies are thus characteristics that have changed evolutionarily and are different from the characteristics of a distant ancestor. All of the species that share an apomorphic characteristic are considered to be derived from a single common ancestor (because they inherited the derived characteristic from that common ancestor). The derived/apomorphic characteristic that they share is referred to as a synapomorphy. Mammals are thus considered a monophyletic group because they share a number of synapomorphies (e.g., produce milk, have hair, are warm-blooded) that were inherited from the common ancestor of the mammals. The unique 4+2 arrangement of stamens in the mustard family is another example of a synapomorphy; this derived characteristic occurred in the ancestor of all the mustards and is shared by, and only by, members of that family. According to cladists, only this type of shared derived characteristic provides evidence of phylogenetic relationships, and therefore only these characteristics should be used in developing a classification system. They say that shared ancestral characteristics—those characteristics two organisms share because they have been retained from a distant common ancestor—do not accurately reflect recent relationships and should therefore not be used. For example, humans and lizards share the ancestral characteristic of four limbs; snakes, however, have no limbs—legs were lost relatively recently in the evolutionary line leading to snakes. Just because humans and lizards have retained the four limbs found in our common vertebrate ancestor does not mean lizards are more closely related to us than lizards are to snakes. In fact, lizards and snakes are closely related (Fig. 177) and have a number of shared derived characteristics that link them. According to cladists, polyphyletic groups (containing taxa descended from more than one ancestor) and paraphyletic groups (including the common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants) should not be recognized (see Fig. 176 for these situations). Further, relationships based on overall similarity (a methodology referred to as phenetics) are not formally recognized—just because two groups appear similar does not necessarily mean they are closely related evolutionarily. For example, the cacti (Cactaceae) and euphorbs (Euphorbiaceae) both have large, desert-adapted, succulent species that are superficially almost indistinguishable but very distantly related evolutionarily. These similarities are due to convergent evolution, a process by which distantly related, or even unrelated, species evolve similar adaptations in the face of similar selection pressures (such as desert-like conditions). As indicated above, traditional taxonomists since the time of Darwin have attempted to reflect phylogeny in their systems of classification. However, they have used somewhat different methods from cladists—not only shared derived characteristics, but also shared ancestral characteristics have been utilized. Further, in addition to monophyletic groups, paraphyletic groups often have been recognized if they could be defined phenetically. In fact, our current plant classification system contains numerous examples of paraphyletic groups. The evolutionary tree in Figure 178 is a theoretical example of this situation. Species A, B, C, D, and E are all similar morphologically; species F, however, because of adaptation to some extreme environment (e.g., desert), has become very different morphologically. This phenetic difference of species F is reflected in Figure 178 by its distance from the other species. Traditional taxonomists have in general placed species A, B, C, D and E in one genus, and species F in another. Cladists would argue that this is unacceptable because E and F are more closely related than any of the others (they share the most recent common ancestor); the group A, B, C, D, and E is unacceptable because it is paraphyletic. Either A, B, and C have to be put in one genus and D, E, and F in another, or all six have to be put in the same genus. Traditional taxonomists might counter that these solutions do not reflect the tremendous amount of evolutionary change undergone by species F; they in some cases argue that because F is so different phenetically, it should be recognized as a separate group. An actual example can be seen in the case of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweeds) and Apocynaceae (dogbanes), two families recognized by traditional taxonomists (Fig. 179). The milkweeds, like our theoretical species F, are quite distinctive morphologically and, indeed, are widely recognized as monophyletic. However, when cladistic methods are applied, it becomes readily apparent that the Asclepiadaceae are a monophyletic branch derived from within the Apocynaceae, making the dogbane family (with milkweeds excluded) paraphyletic (like our
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LIST OF CONSERVATION ORGANIZATIONS/
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APRIVATE LIST OF CONSERVATION ORGAN
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APPENDIX FOURTEEN BOOKS FOR THE STU
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BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF TEXAS NATIVE
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BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF TEXAS NATIVE
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APPENDIX FIFTEEN A SUGGESTED LIST O
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TREES (CONTINUED) NATIVE PLANTS SUG
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