Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

More documents

Recommendations

Info

ehavior in the tropical closed canopy forests of two national parks in West and Central Africa. Here the diet is heavily browse with little reliance on grass. Bia National Park is located in the forest belt of western Ghana, receives 1500 mm rain per annum, and is described by Short (1981) as lowland tropical rainforest with characteristics of evergreen and semi-deciduous forest. Browse (mainly woody leaves and stems) constituted the bulk of elephants’ diet in Bia, in addition to some fruit. Grass, on the other hand, is almost completely absent from Bia NP and thus does not contribute to the diet of these elephants. Although closed canopy forests dominate the landscape, the elephants preferred to browse in open forest and old forest gaps. The only feeding activities that took place in closed forest were barking and gathering of fruits. Accordingly, vegetation cover type is not utilized in proportion to its occurrence, and elephants’ avoidance of closed forest and preference for open canopy with dense ground vegetation is also supported by Wing and Buss (1970) and Laws et al (1975) (cited by Short 1981: 184). Another interesting finding by Short was that elephants in different habitats prefer different types of trees, depending on the total vegetation assemblage. Two species, Pipideniastrum africanum and Parinari excelsa, heavily barked in other studies (see Wing and Buss 1970 and Laws et al 1975), were not barked at all in Bia NP. Also, the elephants are highly selective, preferring to bark from a small number of species. Short offers several explanations for this phenomenon: (i) elephants with a greater range of choice in forest, select alternative species; (ii) palatability or calcium content may differ for these species between areas; (iii) elephants' need for a particular mineral may vary between areas; (iv) learned preferences may differ between areas (Short 1981: 184). 105
Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise reported on the feeding behavior and diet of the ‘forest’ elephant in the Santchou Reserve in western Cameroon. The habitat of the reserve is also a tropical closed canopy forest with 1750 mm rainfall a year and 700-800 m altitude. Here, unlike Bia National Park, the main component of the elephants’ diet was grass, particularly Pennisetum purpureum, and the woody material (leaves and stems) only made up a small fraction of the diet. Fruit was also very important to the diet, with 22 varieties being represented. Also contrasting with Short’s study, Tchamba and Seme found that the elephants exploited the habitat types (closed forest, swamp forest, savanna, farmland) in direct proportion to their occurrence. Taking these factors into consideration, the authors propose that the Santchou elephants’ diet and feeding behavior are more similar to the results from East African studies (i.e. Wing and Buss 1970 and Field 1971) than West African ones (i.e. Short 1981). Thus, while sufficient browse is available in East Africa, grass generally accounts for 80-90% of the bulk diet for elephants of this region. The diet of the Santchou elephants agrees with eastern Africa findings, but the diet of the Bia elephants agrees with southern Africa research, such as that of Williamson (1975; cited by Short 1981: 181). Consequently, research conducted in South Africa is the next region to be considered. South Africa Williamson (1975) found that browse constituted the bulk of the diet for South African elephants, except during the wet season (Short 1981: 181). Steyn and Stalmans (2001) found in the Songimvelo Game Reserve in the Barberton Mountains, South 106
Page 1 and 2:
Tracing the Source of the Elephant
Page 3 and 4:
Table of Contents List of Tables iv
Page 5 and 6:
Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
Page 7 and 8:
List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
Page 9 and 10:
Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
Page 11 and 12:
Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 13 and 14:
“merchants” to a larger degree
Page 15 and 16:
skeletal part to verify the presenc
Page 17 and 18:
possibility of sophisticated scient
Page 19 and 20:
B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
Page 21 and 22:
urbanization at centers such as Enk
Page 23 and 24:
incisors”) of the elephant. Each
Page 25 and 26:
Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
Page 27 and 28:
perpendicular to the tubules....[co
Page 29 and 30:
Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
Page 31 and 32:
for the elephant, is where the dent
Page 33 and 34:
Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 35 and 36:
pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
Page 37 and 38:
emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
Page 39 and 40:
near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
Page 41 and 42:
Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
Page 43 and 44:
Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
Page 45 and 46:
Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 47 and 48:
Figure 16: Present distribution of
Page 49 and 50:
Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
Page 51 and 52:
flooding and dense human population
Page 53 and 54:
BCE), mentions imports of approxima
Page 55 and 56:
The degree of contact between the L
Page 57 and 58:
Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
Page 59 and 60:
are lacking in North Africa, but th
Page 61 and 62:
Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
Page 63 and 64:
Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
Page 65 and 66:
elephants show a lower preference f
Page 67 and 68: similar to those of the African ele
Page 69 and 70: Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
Page 71 and 72: of the waste pieces may be reused f
Page 73 and 74: ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
Page 75 and 76: century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
Page 77 and 78: ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
Page 79 and 80: Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
Page 81 and 82: Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
Page 83 and 84: Much of the discussion about Palest
Page 85 and 86: (Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
Page 87 and 88: argues that for both of the types
Page 89 and 90: The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
Page 91 and 92: study residence and mobility. Katze
Page 93 and 94: feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
Page 95 and 96: 4‰ lower than those of marine pla
Page 97 and 98: Studies which have focused on evalu
Page 99 and 100: sediments in one area had isotopic
Page 101 and 102: local environment, and thus answer
Page 103 and 104: Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
Page 105 and 106: Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
Page 107 and 108: Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
Page 109 and 110: wide, straight lips of the hippo en
Page 111 and 112: unlikely that many were actually ea
Page 113 and 114: proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
Page 115 and 116: diet as interpreted from the stable
Page 117: had larger ranges than those elepha
Page 121 and 122: fact adapted to the desert, and thi
Page 123 and 124: Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
Page 125 and 126: Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
Page 127 and 128: Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
Page 129 and 130: Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
Page 131 and 132: Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
Page 133 and 134: Table 6 (continued) 120
Page 135 and 136: Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 137 and 138: Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 139 and 140: Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
Page 141 and 142: In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
Page 143 and 144: (Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
Page 145 and 146: fault and is filled with flood-basa
Page 147 and 148: Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
Page 149 and 150: The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
Page 151 and 152: The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
Page 153 and 154: and water and sediment from the Nil
Page 155 and 156: Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
Page 157 and 158: Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
Page 159 and 160: Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
Page 161 and 162: strontium data from Betton and Cive
Page 163 and 164: These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
Page 165 and 166: Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
Page 167 and 168: Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
Page 169 and 170:
Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
Page 171 and 172:
Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
Page 173 and 174:
USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
Page 175 and 176:
Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 177 and 178:
Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
Page 179 and 180:
Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
Page 181 and 182:
d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
Page 183 and 184:
and hippopotami are grazers. To com
Page 185 and 186:
fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
Page 187 and 188:
opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
Page 189 and 190:
international environment. The LBA
Page 191 and 192:
ecause they were subject to taxatio
Page 193 and 194:
were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
Page 195 and 196:
scientific archaeometric angle and
Page 197 and 198:
Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
Page 199 and 200:
compare, the more unique the region
Page 201 and 202:
Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
Page 203 and 204:
Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
Page 205 and 206:
Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
Page 207 and 208:
Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
Page 209 and 210:
Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
Page 211 and 212:
Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
Page 213 and 214:
Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
Page 215 and 216:
van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
show all

Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?