Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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ecause usually the enamel was removed by humans (possibly before shipping even), or by nature, as the enamel tends to wear off with use. The availability of strontium isotope data in the geological literature for some regions leaves something to be desired. The next step would be to search out unpublished data by contacting mining companies and governmental geological surveys. In general the geological literature is biased, understandably, towards answering research questions of interest to geologists. These tend to concern unusual formations or processes. But the geological literature should not be solely depended on anyway, because of the potential differences between biologically-available strontium and geological strontium. The stable carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen isotopes did not provide isotopic signatures like those reported by van der Merwe et al. (1990) and Vogel et al. (1990), primarily because the oxygen and nitrogen isotopes were not retrievable or potentially contaminated by diagenetic processes. These isotopes were not expected to differentiate source areas, since they are based on diet and environmental factors, and therefore populations from geographically separated regions could have the same isotopic signature. XRD should also be conducted on apatite samples to determine to what degree the burial environment has affected the integrity of the isotopic signal. Strontium isotope ratios, because they are based on the geology of the region, are therefore the best suited for provenance studies. Other isotopes, such as lead (Pb) and neodymium (Nd), are also incorporated into bone and ivory of animals from the environment based on the underlying bedrock geology. In the future strontium isotopes should be analyzed alongside lead and neodymium, as the more isotopes available to 185
compare, the more unique the regional isotopic fingerprints will be, and sophisticated statistical analyses may also be performed to better interpret the data (as in, for example, Koch et al. 1995). Lead and neodymium isotopes are furthermore widely available in the geological literature, perhaps more so than strontium isotopes. Lead isotopes have been successfully utilized in archaeological research application (Aufderheide et al. 1981, 1988; Molleson et al. 1986; Gale 1989; Reedy and Reedy 1991; Carlson 1996). To my knowledge neodymium isotopes have not been exploited yet for archaeological purposes. Naturally a larger sample size is required, and the most practical solution would be to establish a database so that any isotopic research on ivory, or even any research utilizing strontium isotopes, could be compared quickly and efficiently. The problem, as usual, is time and money, as TIMS would be essential for adequate precision. Also, a database of a single material type is unnecessarily restrictive, as eventually all categories of exchange items should be incorporated to give a broader picture of Late Bronze Age trade. Certainly, the contribution to archaeological research in general of studying trade patterns and exchange mechanisms (“the trade perspective” as I call it) is that it offers the “wide” perspective in giving larger scales of analysis, just as “settlement” or “landscape” archaeology opened up the focus from site analysis to regional analysis. As was demonstrated here, the trade perspective is capable of encompassing large geographical areas and recognizing lateral social relationships, expressed via international relations for the ruling elite. If culture is to be regarded as unbounded and population-based, a move must be made to larger scales of analysis. 186
Page 1 and 2:
Tracing the Source of the Elephant
Page 3 and 4:
Table of Contents List of Tables iv
Page 5 and 6:
Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
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List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
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Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
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Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
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“merchants” to a larger degree
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skeletal part to verify the presenc
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possibility of sophisticated scient
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B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
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urbanization at centers such as Enk
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incisors”) of the elephant. Each
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Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
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perpendicular to the tubules....[co
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Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
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for the elephant, is where the dent
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Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
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pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
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emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
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near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
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Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
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Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
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Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
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Figure 16: Present distribution of
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Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
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flooding and dense human population
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BCE), mentions imports of approxima
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The degree of contact between the L
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Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
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are lacking in North Africa, but th
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Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
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Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
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elephants show a lower preference f
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similar to those of the African ele
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Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
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of the waste pieces may be reused f
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ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
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century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
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ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
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Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
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Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
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Much of the discussion about Palest
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(Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
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argues that for both of the types
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The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
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study residence and mobility. Katze
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feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
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4‰ lower than those of marine pla
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Studies which have focused on evalu
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sediments in one area had isotopic
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local environment, and thus answer
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Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
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Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
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Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
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wide, straight lips of the hippo en
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unlikely that many were actually ea
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proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
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diet as interpreted from the stable
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had larger ranges than those elepha
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Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
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fact adapted to the desert, and thi
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Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
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Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
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Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
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Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
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Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
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Table 6 (continued) 120
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Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
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In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
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(Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
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fault and is filled with flood-basa
Page 147 and 148: Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
Page 149 and 150: The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
Page 151 and 152: The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
Page 153 and 154: and water and sediment from the Nil
Page 155 and 156: Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
Page 157 and 158: Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
Page 159 and 160: Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
Page 161 and 162: strontium data from Betton and Cive
Page 163 and 164: These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
Page 165 and 166: Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
Page 167 and 168: Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
Page 169 and 170: Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
Page 171 and 172: Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
Page 173 and 174: USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
Page 175 and 176: Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 177 and 178: Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
Page 179 and 180: Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
Page 181 and 182: d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
Page 183 and 184: and hippopotami are grazers. To com
Page 185 and 186: fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
Page 187 and 188: opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
Page 189 and 190: international environment. The LBA
Page 191 and 192: ecause they were subject to taxatio
Page 193 and 194: were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
Page 195 and 196: scientific archaeometric angle and
Page 197: Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
Page 201 and 202: Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
Page 203 and 204: Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
Page 205 and 206: Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
Page 207 and 208: Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
Page 209 and 210: Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
Page 211 and 212: Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
Page 213 and 214: Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
Page 215 and 216: van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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