Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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presented as tribute to one’s subjects. But equality was emphasized perhaps because the ruling elite were matched well in the specific political configuration of power, but also as an inversion of (or reaction to) the growing inequality within societies, inequalities which would eventually come to a head at the end of the LBA with the mass destruction and population movements throughout the eastern Mediterranean. A successful isotopic provenancing of ivory would have therefore said something about the circulation of these symbols amongst the upper crust of society in the eastern Mediterranean. The degree to which the objects were passed from one ruler to another in a “prestige chain network” (Peltenberg 1991: 168) would be evident, but more important, the other trade cycles operating alongside and perhaps outside of royal trade initiatives would be finally documented if the ivory samples from the Uluburun shipwreck were shown to come from a variety of sources. This merchant, commercially-oriented, trade is widely suspected to have existed, but could rendered particularly archaeologically visible if it were shown to operate even in the realm of a material assumed to be the primarily controlled by the palace centers. The Uluburun ship may be a royal exchange venture, but the extent of trade in ivory before it was loaded onto the boat could be ascertained. 183
Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research To sum up the endeavors of this exploration into the ivory trade of the eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age via recent advances in archaeometric analyses, the results must be said to be inconclusive. However, the inquiry itself is not inconclusive as knowledge has been gained in how to approach the research program in the next round. The HR-ICP-MS instrument did not have the precision required, but TIMS or other new types of mass spectometers could be utilized in the future. Overall, several suggestions for further strontium isotope research on ivory are in order. First of all, as recommended by Price et al. (2002), faunal samples from the specific regions considered as sources of ivory should be analyzed to determine the “biologically-available” strontium. However, the biologically-available strontium, while more accurate than the strontium values available in the geological literature database, will differ from ivory samples. Bone acts as an averaging mechanism for the strontium circulating in the environment, whereas ivory grows by accretion. An average could be taken from the ivory sample by taking several micro-samples of each sample, or by physically mixing the powdered sample. At any rate, the variation in ivory would be more significant in elephants, as their diet varies seasonally and the home range of the elephant may cover geologically heterogeneous regions. Hippopotamus ivory would likely not show significant variation. Water and soil samples from the regions would be beneficial as well. Enamel should also be compared with dentine from the same sample to determine the extent of contamination and diagenesis in the depositional environment. The probability of finding enamel on archaeological samples is very small though, 184
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Tracing the Source of the Elephant
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Table of Contents List of Tables iv
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Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
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List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
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Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
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Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
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“merchants” to a larger degree
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skeletal part to verify the presenc
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possibility of sophisticated scient
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B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
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urbanization at centers such as Enk
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incisors”) of the elephant. Each
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Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
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perpendicular to the tubules....[co
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Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
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for the elephant, is where the dent
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Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
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pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
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emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
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near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
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Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
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Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
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Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
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Figure 16: Present distribution of
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Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
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flooding and dense human population
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BCE), mentions imports of approxima
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The degree of contact between the L
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Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
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are lacking in North Africa, but th
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Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
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Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
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elephants show a lower preference f
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similar to those of the African ele
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Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
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of the waste pieces may be reused f
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ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
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century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
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ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
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Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
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Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
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Much of the discussion about Palest
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(Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
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argues that for both of the types
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The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
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study residence and mobility. Katze
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feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
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4‰ lower than those of marine pla
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Studies which have focused on evalu
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sediments in one area had isotopic
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local environment, and thus answer
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Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
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Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
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Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
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wide, straight lips of the hippo en
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unlikely that many were actually ea
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proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
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diet as interpreted from the stable
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had larger ranges than those elepha
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Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
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fact adapted to the desert, and thi
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Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
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Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
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Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
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Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
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Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
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Table 6 (continued) 120
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Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
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In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
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(Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
Page 145 and 146: fault and is filled with flood-basa
Page 147 and 148: Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
Page 149 and 150: The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
Page 151 and 152: The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
Page 153 and 154: and water and sediment from the Nil
Page 155 and 156: Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
Page 157 and 158: Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
Page 159 and 160: Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
Page 161 and 162: strontium data from Betton and Cive
Page 163 and 164: These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
Page 165 and 166: Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
Page 167 and 168: Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
Page 169 and 170: Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
Page 171 and 172: Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
Page 173 and 174: USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
Page 175 and 176: Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
Page 177 and 178: Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
Page 179 and 180: Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
Page 181 and 182: d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
Page 183 and 184: and hippopotami are grazers. To com
Page 185 and 186: fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
Page 187 and 188: opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
Page 189 and 190: international environment. The LBA
Page 191 and 192: ecause they were subject to taxatio
Page 193 and 194: were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
Page 195: scientific archaeometric angle and
Page 199 and 200: compare, the more unique the region
Page 201 and 202: Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
Page 203 and 204: Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
Page 205 and 206: Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
Page 207 and 208: Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
Page 209 and 210: Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
Page 211 and 212: Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
Page 213 and 214: Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
Page 215 and 216: van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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