Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

urbanization at centers such as Enkomi and Kition which linked the copper-rich interior
with the ports.
Egypt’s border was also extended southward into Nubia, and Hatshepsut sent a
maritime expedition by the Red Sea to Punt, located roughly in the location of modern
Eritrea. Very little is known about Punt as the archaeological evidence for it, other than
historical references in Egypt, is severely lacking (Phillips 1997; Kitchen 1993;
O’Connor 1993). In Nubia the situation is only slightly better. The archaeological record
is more visible but with little diachronic differentiation. More is known about Upper
Nubia than Lower Nubia, particularly because Upper Nubia had an environment more
hospitable to permanent settlement and much of Lower Nubia is now submerged due to
the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Prior to the Late Bronze Age the large site of
Kerma probably prospered from monopolizing trade from the south going to Egypt.
However, Kerma was destroyed and by the New Kingdom Egypt controlled Nubia as far
upriver as the Fourth Cataract, most likely for closer access to trade with the south
through middle agents such as the Irem of the Khartoum region. Nubian princes also
were raised and educated in Egyptian courts, like Palestinian royal offspring (Shinnie
1984; O’Connor 1993: 583-584; Kuhrt 1995: 329-330; Luce 1998: 59). The material
culture of Libya is also poorly understood. However, it is known that the region was
home to pastoral nomads who exhibited aspects of political centralization and social
hierarchy by the LBA, and had established some cities in Cyrenaica, although these have
not been located yet (O’Connor 1993: 576, 583; McBurney 1970).
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