Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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22‰ to -38‰ (average -26‰). Compared to C3 plants, C4 plants have a reduced discrimination against 13 C isotopes, and consequently have values that range from -9‰ to -21‰ (average -12.5‰) (Tykot and Staller 2002; Larsen 1997: 271; Sukumar and Ramesh 1992). Notice these values do not overlap, thereupon making it possible to differentiate between animal diets based solely on either type of plant. C4 plants have δ 13 C values that are on average about 14‰ less negative than C3 plants. Different carbon isotope ratios may occur between plants of the same species due to differences in 1) atmospheric CO2 in forested and high altitude areas, and 2) latitude, which will affect the amount of sunlight and therefore the efficiency of photosynthesis. Moreover, carbon isotope ratios will differ within the plant from one part to another. Considering that most animals eat a variety of plants, these intra-species and intra-plant differences in carbon isotope ratios are of little concern when reconstructing diets since the analysis is aimed at a larger scale, that is, the relative contribution of C3 versus C4 plants to the diet (Larsen 1997: 271). An additional consideration, however, is the CAM photosynthetic pathway. This pathway is designed in such a way as to allow the plant to switch between a C3 or C4 pathway depending on the environmental conditions, and CAM plants (cacti and other succulents) have δ 13 C values intermediate between and overlapping those of C3 and C4 plants. Marine plants also have δ 13 C values between and overlapping those of C3 and C4 plants (Larsen 1997: 272; Tykot and Staller 2002). The isotopic signature of the plants are passed on to herbivores, after a trophic shift due to fractionation by metabolic processes (van der Merwe et al. 1988: 165). Generally the trophic level shift is around 5‰ from plant to the collagen of the animal 79
feeding on the plant (Sukumar and Ramesh 1992: 536; Sukumar and Ramesh 1995: 369; Tieszen et al. 1989; DeNiro and Epstein 1978). Collagen moreover largely reflects the δ 13 C values of the protein component of the animal’s diet, since collagen is formed from amino acids. Conversely, the apatite represents the whole diet (carbohydrates, fats, and protein), and is therefore more useful for characterizing the entire diet, and in particular the carbohydrate portion of the diet, since to a large extent it is not represented in collagen (Larsen 1997: 272), as determined by controlled feeding laboratory experiments (cf. Ambrose and Norr 1993; Tieszen and Fagre 1993). See Figure 31 for a summary of the carbon isotope fractionation through the foodchain and the difference in δ 13 C values between collagen and apatite. Figure 31: Carbon isotope fractionation in terrestrial foodchains 80
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Tracing the Source of the Elephant
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Table of Contents List of Tables iv
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Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
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List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
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Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
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Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
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“merchants” to a larger degree
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skeletal part to verify the presenc
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possibility of sophisticated scient
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B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
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urbanization at centers such as Enk
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incisors”) of the elephant. Each
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Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
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perpendicular to the tubules....[co
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Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
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for the elephant, is where the dent
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Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
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pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
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emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
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near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
Page 41 and 42: Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
Page 43 and 44: Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
Page 45 and 46: Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 47 and 48: Figure 16: Present distribution of
Page 49 and 50: Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
Page 51 and 52: flooding and dense human population
Page 53 and 54: BCE), mentions imports of approxima
Page 55 and 56: The degree of contact between the L
Page 57 and 58: Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
Page 59 and 60: are lacking in North Africa, but th
Page 61 and 62: Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
Page 63 and 64: Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
Page 65 and 66: elephants show a lower preference f
Page 67 and 68: similar to those of the African ele
Page 69 and 70: Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
Page 71 and 72: of the waste pieces may be reused f
Page 73 and 74: ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) a
Page 75 and 76: century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
Page 77 and 78: ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
Page 79 and 80: Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
Page 81 and 82: Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
Page 83 and 84: Much of the discussion about Palest
Page 85 and 86: (Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
Page 87 and 88: argues that for both of the types
Page 89 and 90: The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
Page 91: study residence and mobility. Katze
Page 95 and 96: 4‰ lower than those of marine pla
Page 97 and 98: Studies which have focused on evalu
Page 99 and 100: sediments in one area had isotopic
Page 101 and 102: local environment, and thus answer
Page 103 and 104: Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
Page 105 and 106: Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
Page 107 and 108: Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
Page 109 and 110: wide, straight lips of the hippo en
Page 111 and 112: unlikely that many were actually ea
Page 113 and 114: proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
Page 115 and 116: diet as interpreted from the stable
Page 117 and 118: had larger ranges than those elepha
Page 119 and 120: Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
Page 121 and 122: fact adapted to the desert, and thi
Page 123 and 124: Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
Page 125 and 126: Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
Page 127 and 128: Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
Page 129 and 130: Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
Page 131 and 132: Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
Page 133 and 134: Table 6 (continued) 120
Page 135 and 136: Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 137 and 138: Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
Page 139 and 140: Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
Page 141 and 142: In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
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(Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
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fault and is filled with flood-basa
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Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
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The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
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The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
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and water and sediment from the Nil
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Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
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Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
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Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
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strontium data from Betton and Cive
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These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
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Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
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Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
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Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
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Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
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USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
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Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
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Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
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Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
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d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
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and hippopotami are grazers. To com
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fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
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opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
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international environment. The LBA
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ecause they were subject to taxatio
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were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
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scientific archaeometric angle and
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Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
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compare, the more unique the region
Page 201 and 202:
Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
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Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
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Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
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Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
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Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
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Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
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Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
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van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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