Tracing the Source of the Elephant And Hippopotamus Ivory from ...

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Ivory Workshops in the Aegean The now familiar Tomb of Rekhmire, in addition to depicting Nubians and Syrians as bearing elephant tusks, also depicts the Keftiu (generally agreed to be Cretans) as bringing a tusk in tribute (see Figure 25). But Crete had no sources of ivory of their own, and after importing it they may have traded the material further or presented the ivory as a gift-exchange among ruling elites (Krzyszkowska 1990: 19). Figure 25: Keftiu bearing ivory to Egypt, from the Tomb of Rekhmire (Krzyszkowska 1990: Fig. 5). In Homer (and the later authors Hesiod and Pindar) the word elephas (ελέφας) meant ivory, not the elephant (Scullard 1974: 32), as they presumably had no familiarity with the animals from which ivory came. References to ivory in Homer include likening Menelaus’ white skin to the ivory of bridal ornaments after he is injured (Iliad IV.141), the ivory of Menelaus’ palace (Odyssey IV.73), the couch of Penelope as inlaid with 59
ivory and silver (Odyssey XIX.55) and a bed that Odysseus built and inlaid with gold, ivory, and silver (Odyssey XXIII.200) (Dodge 1955: 18). There is moreover the speech by Penelope: “‘Ah my friend,’ seasoned Penelope dissented, ‘dreams are hard to unravel, wayward, drifting things- not all we glimpse in them will come to pass... Two gates are there for our evanescent dreams, one is made of ivory, the other made of horn. Those that pass through the ivory cleanly carved are will-o’-the-wisps, their message bears no fruit. The dreams that pass through the gates of polished horn are fraught with truth, for the dreamer who can see them’” (Odyssey XIX.630, translated by Fagles 1996). Clearly ivory is a luxury item in all the above Homeric references, and was therefore probably only available to the Aegean in restricted quantities. Aegean ivory is generally found in workshop contexts located in prestigious places such as palaces (Zakro and Knosses in Crete, Mycenae and Pylos in mainland Greece), or within sanctuaries, or as grave-goods (Karali-Yannacopoulos 1993: 58). The most common products of Aegean workshops were combs, plaques and inlays, with elephant ivory the preferred medium (Krzyszkowska 1993: 26). The earliest (worked) pieces come from the pre-palatial period (2500-2000 B.C), but do not definitively argue for workshops in Crete. Ivory seals were found in the communal burials of the period, and a worked hippopotamus lower canine was excavated from the fill below the West Court at Knossos (Reese 1998: 142). Hippopotamus ivory has additionally been discovered in the pre-palatial workshops of Crete, which Krzyszkowska suggests may be of Egyptian origin (1990: 20). By the Late Bronze Age the amount and geographical range of Aegean workshop material dramatically increases, and represent two phases: early 16 th century-early 14 th 60
Page 1 and 2:
Tracing the Source of the Elephant
Page 3 and 4:
Table of Contents List of Tables iv
Page 5 and 6:
Mechanisms of Late Bronze Age trade
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List of Figures Figure 1. Morpholog
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Figure 35. Average δ 13 C values o
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Figure 69. KW 2557 (Hippopotamus tu
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“merchants” to a larger degree
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skeletal part to verify the presenc
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possibility of sophisticated scient
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B.C. and resumed Egyptian campaigni
Page 21 and 22: urbanization at centers such as Enk
Page 23 and 24: incisors”) of the elephant. Each
Page 25 and 26: Dentine in elephant tusks is essent
Page 27 and 28: perpendicular to the tubules....[co
Page 29 and 30: Figure 3 : The incisors and canines
Page 31 and 32: for the elephant, is where the dent
Page 33 and 34: Chapter 3 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 35 and 36: pastoralism. Today most of the hipp
Page 37 and 38: emains in the Syro-Palestinian regi
Page 39 and 40: near Beersheba. An EB I lower right
Page 41 and 42: Figure 13: The distribution of Midd
Page 43 and 44: Figure 14: 18 th Dynasty Egyptian t
Page 45 and 46: Chapter 4 The Archaeological, Histo
Page 47 and 48: Figure 16: Present distribution of
Page 49 and 50: Maghreb was inaccessible or nonexis
Page 51 and 52: flooding and dense human population
Page 53 and 54: BCE), mentions imports of approxima
Page 55 and 56: The degree of contact between the L
Page 57 and 58: Minoan and Mycenaean sherds from th
Page 59 and 60: are lacking in North Africa, but th
Page 61 and 62: Part II: The Syrian Elephant Turnin
Page 63 and 64: Figure 22: Location of Ghab Valley
Page 65 and 66: elephants show a lower preference f
Page 67 and 68: similar to those of the African ele
Page 69 and 70: Chapter 5 Ivory Workshops in the La
Page 71: of the waste pieces may be reused f
Page 75 and 76: century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIB), but th
Page 77 and 78: ivory from a burnt deposit in Thebe
Page 79 and 80: Tell Fakhariyah has only yielded ex
Page 81 and 82: Figure 28: Comparison of utilizatio
Page 83 and 84: Much of the discussion about Palest
Page 85 and 86: (Lilyquist 1998: 27; Gachet 1993: 7
Page 87 and 88: argues that for both of the types
Page 89 and 90: The End of Ivory-working in the LBA
Page 91 and 92: study residence and mobility. Katze
Page 93 and 94: feeding on the plant (Sukumar and R
Page 95 and 96: 4‰ lower than those of marine pla
Page 97 and 98: Studies which have focused on evalu
Page 99 and 100: sediments in one area had isotopic
Page 101 and 102: local environment, and thus answer
Page 103 and 104: Figure 32: Sr concentrations plotte
Page 105 and 106: Figure 34: 87 Sr/ 86 Sr vs. age of
Page 107 and 108: Chapter 7 Ecological and Dietary Re
Page 109 and 110: wide, straight lips of the hippo en
Page 111 and 112: unlikely that many were actually ea
Page 113 and 114: proportion of C3 to C4 vegetation i
Page 115 and 116: diet as interpreted from the stable
Page 117 and 118: had larger ranges than those elepha
Page 119 and 120: Tchamba and Seme (1993) likewise re
Page 121 and 122: fact adapted to the desert, and thi
Page 123 and 124:
Table 2: δ 13 C values and % C4 fr
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Figure 35: Average δ 13 C values o
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Table 4: Percentage of C3 plants in
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Table 5: Isotope values for Ambosel
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Figure 39: “Carbon and nitrogen i
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Table 6 (continued) 120
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Figure 41: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 43: δ 13 C versus δ 15 N f
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Figure 44: δ 13 C versus 87 Sr/ 86
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In conclusion, isotopic analysis ha
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(Ugarit/Ras Shamra). Only two studi
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fault and is filled with flood-basa
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Figure 49: Geologic and fault map o
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The Negev Desert in Southern Israel
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The Eastern Mediterranean and the N
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and water and sediment from the Nil
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Figure 55: Contour diagrams for the
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Figure 56: The Sr isotope ratios in
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Figure 58: Schematic diagram along
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strontium data from Betton and Cive
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These flood basalts have 87 Sr/ 86
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Figure 63: Map of the Libyan Desert
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Table 7: Isotopic data of high-grad
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Chapter 11 Analytical Procedures, S
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Table 9: Collagen samples for analy
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USF # Museum Catalog # Table 10: Ap
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Figure 66: KW 1182 (Hippopotamus tu
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Figure 70: KW 3842 (Elephant ivory)
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Chapter 12 Results and Discussion R
Page 181 and 182:
d18O (apatite, per mil) 3 2 1 0 -1
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and hippopotami are grazers. To com
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fetched (with the Nile ≈ +2‰).
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opposed to the 2-3 mg required for
Page 189 and 190:
international environment. The LBA
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ecause they were subject to taxatio
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were other ruling elites (Ratnagar
Page 195 and 196:
scientific archaeometric angle and
Page 197 and 198:
Chapter 13 Conclusion and Suggestio
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compare, the more unique the region
Page 201 and 202:
Aufderheide, A.C., Neiman, F.D., Wi
Page 203 and 204:
Caubet, A., and Poplin, F. 1993. La
Page 205 and 206:
Finley, M.I. 1981. Mycenaean palace
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Horn, P., and Müller-Sohnius, D.,
Page 209 and 210:
Liebowitz, H. 1987. Late Bronze II
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Price, T.D., Grupe, G., and Schröt
Page 213 and 214:
Sherratt, A., and Sherratt, S. 1991
Page 215 and 216:
van der Merwe, N. J., Lee-Thorp, J.
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